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Merchants and Bankers
1675-1700

Trade - an international perspective

This website, produced by Australian historian Dan Byrnes, is a no-frills, text-based website designed simply to list historical and genealogical information on many notable merchants and traders of what is termed, the Western World.

These pages will be added to and improved in quality as time permits. In time, some essays will appear on these pages

Please use the chooser above for navigating this website on Merchants and Bankers Listings.

It is hoped that these webpages will be of assistance to family historians in the UK, the US and Australasia, by way of providing contexts for further research.

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Further chronology notes for 1675-1700

1650-1700: Note: One of the most remarkable (and outrageous?) books ever written about English pirates is:
B. R. Burg, Sodomy and the Pirate Tradition: English Sea Rovers in the Seventeenth Century Caribbean. New York, New York University Press, 1995.
See also:
W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African-American Seamen in the Age of Sail. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, nd-recent/1990s?.

1660: Reference item: For a detailed and more insightful account of the East India Company's activities and relationship with European rivals in Bengal see N.K. Sinha, Economic History of Bengal - From Plassey to the Permanent Settlement. (Calcutta, 1956)

1660: Possible origins of The Hope Diamond, which is "possibly cursed". It came from the Golconda region of Andrha Pradesh, southern central India, into the possession of French adventurer, Jean Baptiste Tavernier. It was "bluer in colour", uncut, large and about 112-3/16th old carats, or 110.5 modern carats, about 22.1 grams weight. In 1668 Tavernier was granted an audience with Louis XIV, the Sun King of France, who bought about 1000 gemstones from the adventurer, including what became The Hope Diamond. It was stolen during the French Revolution, but turned up, recut, 20 years and one day after its theft in London, to then be "squabbled over by greedy British aristocrats". At one point it was held by London jeweller Daniel Eliason. In 1824 it was sold to Henry Philip Hope, heir to a banking fortune (from Hopes of Amsterdam, a firm bought out by Barings) who was born in Holland, and who renamed the diamond. His sister-in-law, Louisa Hope, would wear it at soirees she hosted. Hope died in 1839 and left the diamond to his three nephews, one of whom was Henry, a failed politician. In 1861, Henry's daughter Henrietta married the Earl of Lincoln ("he a gambler, and from a family of drunks, drug addicts, layabouts and the odd transvestite"). In 1884 the diamond went to the Earl's second son by Henrietta Hope, Lord Francis Pelham-Clinton Hope, a playboy-peer who by the 1890s was in serious debt. He married music hall actress May Yohe (Madcap May), daughter of a saloon keeper from Pennsylvania. She took up an affair with a US dry-goods millionaire, Putnam Bradlee Strong. Lord Francis's debts reached $5 million, but he had won a right to sell The Hope Diamond. It was bought by Simon Frankel, a New York dealer. Later it was perhaps in the hands of Selim Habib, a Paris dealer, then a French syndicate, then in 1910 it was sold to Parisian jewellers, Cartier Brothers. (May Yohe once starred in a silent movie serial, The Hope Diamond Mystery and produced a book, The Mystery of the Hope Diamond.) Cartiers sold The Hope Diamond to Evalyn Walsh McLean, a daughter of Irish migrants who'd struck it gold-rich in the 1890s Colorado goldfields. She married Ned McLean (d.1941), heir to newspaper, Washington Post, whose debts became so large the newspaper had to be sold. The diamond was found stuck in the back of Evelyn's bedside radio when she died, then stored in a bank vault. In 1949 The Hope Diamond was bought by New York jeweller, Harry Winston, who in 1958 donated it to Smithsonian Institute, which has had care of it ever since. (See recent book, Hope: Adventures of a Diamond. Simon and Schuster, 2003. Several other large and famed diamonds are the Sancy, Koh-i-Noor (Mountain of Light) and Star of Africa.)

1675: More to come

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1676: Time of civil unrest with servants generally in Virginia.

1676: (Penson, Colonial Agents, p.71), Jamaica, records seems confused re agents for Jamaica, annoyingly, but a ref to one John Bindloss agent to Sir Henry Morgan. and in 1677 was appointed Sir John Griffith agent to Jamaica, no details on him, but by 1680 existed a circle of merchants and planters Jamaica in dispute at Lords of Trade with the Royal Africa Co. and by 1682 Jamaica merchants wanted regulation of transportation of servants to the islands.

1676: The Royal Africa Company lists include: Sub-governor, Sir Andrew King, William Allington, Sir Thomas Bludworth, Francis Dashwood, John Gardiner (Gardner?) (William Gardner, separate trader, see Davies); Capt. Abraham Holditch, Sir Benjamin Newland, Sir Henry Tulse, John Morice, Thomas Murthwaite (sic), Sir John Banks, Sir Edward Hopegood, Sir Gabriel Roberts, William Warren, Sir William Turner, John Searle, Tobias Rustat (sic), John Mead, John Bancks. (Davies, RAC).

Merchants and Bankers families - Lists:
From Little London Directory 1677 by J. C. Hutton, reprinted in The Handbook of London Bankers F. G. Hilton-Price, 1876
Goldsmiths keeping running cashes in 1677:
John Addis and co, at the Sun Lombard St, London, John Bolitho and Mr Wilson, at The Golden Lion , Lombard St, John Ballard at The Unicorn, Lombard St, Job Bolton at The Bolt and Tun, Lombard St, Robert Blanchard and Child at The Marigold Fleet, St (? Richard Blanchard), Thomas Cook and Nicholas Cary at The Griffin, Exchange Alley, Mr Cuthbert, Cheapside, Mr Coggs, Kings Head, Strand, Mr Churchill, Strand, Charles Duncombe and Richard Kent at The Grasshopper, Lombard St, John Ewing and Benjamin Norrington at the Angel and Crown, Lombard St, Mr East, Strand, Thomas Fowles, Black Lion Fleet St, Joseph and Nath Hornboy the Star, Lombard St, John Hind and Thomas Carwood Exchange Alley, Cornhill, Benjamin Hinton at the Flower de Lys Lombard St, James Herriot, James Hore, James Johnson, Thomas Kiborne and Capill, Kenton, Ketch, Henry Lamb, James Lapley, John Mawson, Henry Nelthorpe, Thomas Price, Peter Percefull and Stephen Evans, Thomas Pardo, Thomas Rowe and Thomas Green, Humph. Stocks, John Sweetaple, John Snell, Michael Shrimpshaw, Richard Stayley, John Temple and John Seale, John Thursby, Bar. Turner and Samuel Tookie, Major Joh. Wallis, Peter Wade, Peter White and Churchill, Thomas White, Thomas Williams, Robert Ward and John Towneley.
From Little London Directory 1677 by J. C. Hutton, reprinted in The Handbook of London Bankers F. G. Hilton-Price, 1876

1677: William of Orange marries Mary.

1677: Sheriffs of London and Middlesex were directed to deliver malefactors to William Freeman, merchant of London for transportation.

1677: Sheriffs of London and Middlesex were directed to deliver malefactors to William Freeman, merchant of London. The next most active merchant involved in convict transportation was Jonathan Forward, from about 1714.

1678: On Nevis by 1678 were planters Sir James Russell and Col. Randolph Russell, each an owner of 150 slaves. The Russells, Pym, Keynall, Winthrops and Baijers (sic) seem, to have arrived in the 1640s and 1650s. The name appears, of William Byam of Surinam, and one suspects Nordhorf and Hall, authors of a book on Bligh and the Bounty of the 1930s, named their character Roger Byam from this family name. (Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 128-130).

1678-1680: Links are forming between merchants who built ships, supplied timber to the navy, the East India Company, and presumably the users of ships for slaving. Many issues arose for discussion. One wood monger was a Westminster JP, Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, "not so creditable", a friend of Pepys, who was also friends with another wood monger, Warren. By 1680, Sir Joseph Williamson received mail on a lack of English ships being built; the timber merchant Thomas Papillon claimed ship-users had preferred taking prize ships to using the timber trades. (Davis, Rise of the English Shipping Industry, p. 53; Clark, Later Stuarts, pp. 93-95)

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1678: The Lords of Trade appointed a new governor for Jamaica, the Earl of Carlisle, whose efforts were repelled by powerful planters Samuel Long and William Beeston. One of Carlisle's aides was Major-General Sir Francis-Watson. Opposition on the island was led by Colonel Samuel Long, already from one of the most famous families on Jamaica. In 1679-1680 charges were laid against Long who had to stand before the Lords of Trade. In their politics, the Jamaicans insisted they wanted "the Barbados model". (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 72-73).

1678: New governor of Jamaica is Lord Carlisle, he also had little success with organising the assembly of Jamaica. one of his aides was Major-General Sir Francis-Watson. Opposition on the island led by Colonel Samuel Long, already one of the most famous families on Jamaica, and in 1679-1680 charges were laid against Long, and he had to stand before Lords of Trade. (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp.72-73.) The Jamaicans wanted "the Barbados model".

1678: The Royal Africa Company lists include: Sir Gabriel Roberts; Sir Benjamin Newland, Deputy-Gov. 1678-1679 and Sub-Governor RAfCo. 1680-1681; Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Thomas Belasyse (sic) Viscount Falconberg, Sir Peter Colleton, Lawrence Du Puy (sic), Nicholls or Niccols (sic), John Mead, Sir William Turner, William Warren, Sir Thomas Bludworth, Roger Chappell, William earl of Craven, Edward Rudge, Thomas Vernon also an Benjamin Skutt, Africa company's agent in Barbados; Sir John Banks, Sir Samuel Dashwood, Sir Edward Hopegood, Deputy-Gov. 1674-1675; Sir Andrew King, Sir Peter Proby, Richard Mountney, Nicholas Mead, Sir John Mathews, Peter Joye (sic).

1679: England: Treasury commissioners included Hon Laurence Hyde later earl of Rochester, and Sidney Godolphin.

1679: England is distracted by the Popish plot.

1680: K. G. Davies, The North Atlantic World in the Seventeenth Century. Minneapolis, 1974.

1680: James D. Phillips, Salem in the Seventeenth Century. Salem, 1933* Also, Salem in the Eighteenth Century. Salem, 1937*., and Salem and the Indies. Boston, 1947.*

1680: During the 1680s begins a small Scottish trade with the American tobacco colonies - carried on illegally. (Davis, Rise of the English Shipping Industry, p. 28, Note 1.)

1680: The Royal Africa Co. lists included Sir Benjamin Newland, Deputy-Governor, Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Deputy-Gov. RACo., 1680-1681, Court of Assistants to the Royal Africa Co. 1672. Members were John Ashby, William Fawkener (sic), Sir John Verney, James Ward, Apt Francis Wilshaw, Peter Joye (sic), Sir John Mathews, Nicholas Mead, Richard Mountney, Tobias Rustat (sic), John Morgan, William Stevens, Sir Henry Tulse, Lord George Berkeley, John Morice, John Bull, Edward Rudge, Samuel Moyer, Sir Gabriel Roberts, Robert Williamson, William Moyer, Jacob Lucy, (sic), John Cooke. (Davies, RAC).
Between 1680-1688 the Royal African Company supplied 46,396 slaves to the West Indies, about 5155 annually, and at 300 per ship, about 17 ships annually. And between 1680 and 1688 the Royal African Company supplied 46,396 slaves to the West Indies, about 5155 annually, and at 300 per ship, about 17 ships annually. ...Williams p. 99-100 says, "Besides the white indentured servants, convicts and malefactors provided a second source of white labour. If the existence of a contract gave a semblance of legality to the system of white indentured labour, convict labour was also surrounded with the aura of the law by the commutation of sentences involving death or imprisonment to transportation and servitude in the colonies for a term of years. The crime was extended to fit a punishment which contributed to the solution of the colonial labour problem, and a veritable system in this regard was developed in Bristol, where magistrates and judges were connected, directly or indirectly, Williams says, with the Caribbean sugar plantations."

1680: Some Barbados parishes were Bridgetown, Christchurch and Sts Michael, James, Thomas, George, Philip, John, Joseph, Peter, Andrew, Lucy. (Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 88).

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1680: December 16: Some accommodations regarding Jamaican politics were being reached between the Earl of Carlisle, Col. Long, Mr. Beeston and others merchants and planters to Jamaica, [There was a Cool William Beeston also]. Jamaicans wanted an ability to raise money to solicit the affairs of the island. This all received royal assent in October 1682. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 73).

1680 from 1676: (Penson, Colonial Agents, p.71), Jamaica, records seems confused re agents for Jamaica, annoyingly, but a ref to one John Bindloss agent to Sir Henry Morgan. and in 1677 was appointed Sir John Griffith agent to Jamaica, no details on him, but by 1680 existed a circle of merchants and planters Jamaica in dispute at Lords of Trade with the Royal Africa Co. and by 1682 Jamaica merchants wanted regulation of transportation of servants to the islands.

1680: English pirates abused the 1680 Anglo-Spanish treaty and went across Isthmus of Panama to pillage the Pacific coast, returning by Cape Horn in 1682. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 329).
And between 1680 and 1688 the Royal African Company supplied 46,396 slaves to the West Indies, about 5155 annually, and at 300 per ship, about 17 ships annually. ... then Williams pp. 99-100 says, "Besides the white indentured servants, convicts and malefactors provided a second source of white labour. If the existence of a contract gave a semblance of legality to the system of white indentured labour, convict labour was also surrounded with the aura of the law by the commutation of sentences involving death or imprisonment to transportation and servitude in the colonies for a term of years. The crime was extended to fit a punishment which contributed to the solution of the colonial labour problem, and a veritable system in this regard was developed in Bristol, where magistrates and judges were connected, directly or indirectly, Williams says, with the Caribbean sugar plantations."

1680: English apothecary, Thomas Sydenham, introduces Sydenham's Laudanum, a compound of opium, sherry wine and herbs. His pills along with others of the time become popular remedies for numerous ailments.
From website based on book: Opium: A History, by Martin Booth Simon and Schuster, Ltd., 1996. e-mail info@opioids.com

1680 approx: The Dutch agent-general on Curacao of the asiento is Balthasar Beck, Lt-governor of the island under Stuyvesant. (The Curacao slave market operates under terms set by the Amsterdam Chamber, which made contracts with the asentistas). Goslinga, Dutch in the Caribbean, pp. 353-362. - Asiento chronology -

1680: In Virginia, it is now regarded as a non-felony to kill a Negro. By 1681-1685, slave society in Virginia depends legally on slavery, with slaves regarded differently to indentured servants.

1681: The English Royal Africa Co. lists include: Sir Benjamin Newland, Sub-Governor RAC 1680-1681, Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Deputy-Governor RAC 1680-1681, John Cooke, John Ashby, William Fawkener (sic), Sir John Verney, Apt Francis Wilshaw, Richard Mountney, John Mead, Sir William Turner, William Warren, John Morgan, Sir Henry Tulse, Lord George Berkeley, John Morice, Samuel Moyer, Sir Gabriel Roberts, Sir Dudley North, Sir John Lethuillier (sic), Edward Colston, Sir Robert Clayton. (Davies, RAC)

1681-1689: An Englishman Cornelius Hodges tries to explore up the Gambia River, looking for gold-mining areas. The French are now also exploring into Senegal seeking gold. Richard Jobson also sailed up the Gambia on similar mission. (K. G. Davies, RCA, p. 216).

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1681-1682: William Penn, earlier a friend of James II, interested in investing in America, was obliged to discharge a crown debt to his father. Charles II granted him proprietary rights on what became Pennsylvania, capital Philadelphia. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 340). Penn Jnr had inherited a large financial claim against the king, £16,000 sterling. (Ver Steeg, The Formative Years, pp. 117-119).
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 340), William Penn earlier a friend of James II, mother a Dutchwoman, interested in investing in America, his father an admiral who commanded in Cromwell's "western design", he dealt early with New Jersey, in 1681-82 Penn had to discharge a crown debt to his father, Charles II granted him what became Pennsylvania, proprietary rights, capital Philadelphia,

1682: Jamaica agents to be Sir Chas Littleton and Cool William Beeston. Beeston may still have been agent in 1687. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 75), supplies for Jamaica now rendered more secure.

1682: (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 336), re [Bermuda] Somers Island Company disbanded in 1682.

1682: The RAC lists include: Sub-governor, Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Deputy-Governor, Sir Dudley North, Edward Colston, Sir John Lethuillier (sic), Thomas Belasyse (sic) Viscount Falconberg, Nicholls or Niccols (sic), John Mead, Sir William Turner, William Warren, John Morgan, Sir Benjamin Newland, William Stevens, Sir Henry Tulse, John Bull, William earl of Craven, Thomas Vernon, Benjamin Skutt, and an Africa Company's agent in Barbados; Sir Samuel Dashwood; Sir Gabriel Roberts, Capt Hopefor Bendall. (Davies, RAC).

1682: The agents for Jamaica agents are to be Sir Charles Littleton and Col. William Beeston. Beeston may still have been agent in 1687. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 75). Supplies for Jamaica are now rendered more secure.

1682: 22nd year of reign of Chas II. Contracts were made for the removal of English felons by William Nevett and Thomas Walsh. (Oldham).

1682: August: Jeaffreson left as governor of a Caribbean island to return to his English estates. He attempted to see Blathwayt, secretary to the Lords of Trade, and being delayed and given difficulties he found it necessary with waiting on officials to pay heavy gratuities and fees for anything to be done. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 65).

1682-1687: Jamaica agents are Charles Littleton, William Beeston, Ralph Knight.

1682: Twelve Quakers, including William Penn, bought East Jersey. In 1702, New Jersey united and became a royal colony, by which time Penn had established Pennsylvania. Wm Penn's father was Admiral Sir William Penn, who remained close to the Stuarts even though he'd assisted the Puritans. Penn Jnr inherited a large financial claim against the king, some £16,000 sterling, so he obtained the grant of Pennsylvania, in 1681. In 1682 Penn arrived in America, to found Philadelphia. (Ver Steeg, The Formative Years, pp. 117-119.)

1682: John Scarlett a merchant of the Eastland Co. (Westerfield, Middlemen, p. 399).

An impression of the family history of London Lord Mayor 1683-1684 Sir Henry Tulse,
1. Lord mayor Sir Henry Tulse (c.1683) sp: Elizabeth Notknown
2. Elizabeth (Suicide) Tulse (b.1660/1661;d.25 Nov 1718) sp: Sir Richard Onslow Bart3, MP, Baron1 Onslow (b.23 Jun 1654;d.13 Dec 1717)
3. Thomas Onslow Baron2 Onslow (b.Nov 1679;d.5 Jun 1740) sp: Elizabeth Knight a fortune, of Jamaica (m.17 Nov 1708;d.19 Apr 1731) 4. Richard Onslow Whig MP Baron3 Onslow (b.1713;d.8 Oct 1776) sp: Mary Elwill (m.16 May 1741;d.20 Apr 1812) 3. Elizabeth Onslow sp: Thomas Middleton Of Essex 4. Mary Middleton Of Essex (d.12 Aug 1766) sp: John Molesworth Visc2 Molesworth of Swords (b.4 Dec 1679;m.Sep 1718;d.17 Feb 1725/1726)

1683: The RAC lists include: Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Sir Dudley North, Apt Hopefor Bendall, Edward Colston, Sir John Lethuillier (sic), Peter Joye (sic), Sir John Mathews, Thomas Belasyse (sic) Viscount Falconberg, Sir Peter Colleton, Nicholls or Niccols (sic), John Mead, Sir William Turner, William Warren, Sir Benjamin Newland, William Stevens, John Bull, William earl of Craven, Thomas Vernon, Benjamin Skutt, also an Africa Company's agent in Barbados. Davies; Sir Samuel Dashwood, Stephen Pitts, Sir Peter Paravicini (sic) or Paravisin, William Jarrett, Sir William Hussey, Abraham Hill, Thomas Heatley. (Davies, RAC).

1683: Agents for Jamaica are Beeston and Littleton. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 152).

1683: The directors of the East India Company considered a new charter provided by James II. The directors would soon adopt Keigwin's more aggressive policy for activity in India. (See Clark, Later Stuarts, pp. 350-351, citing Ray and O. Strachey, Keigwin's Rebellion. 1916.
1683: Richard Keigwin for British takes stronger measures to protect EICo outposts, he had re-taken St. Helena, he got aggressive, though the Co. at London wanted economy, not adventures. Keigwin is recalled home, but returned to Bombay, and in 1683 the garrison mutinied against the EICo quietist policy, Keigwin took control of government and wrote the king Chas he was holding Bombay for him. Chas put the matter to the CO, which sent out in 1683 or later some navy plus Co. ships. Keigwin let off. He died in 1690 landing in the West Indies.

1683: (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 152), agents for Jamaica are Beeston and Littleton.

1683: Manchus of China take control of Taiwan-Formosa as a province.

1684: (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 61, Duke of York first Gov. of Royal African Co. and in 1684 bought £3000 of EICo stock. His mistress then wife was Anne Hyde, to horror of her father Clarendon.

1685: France: Repeal of Edict of Nantes (on religious freedom/tolerance in France), inducing Protestants (Huguenots) to flee France.

1685: Navigation: Johannes Loots publishes his Chart of the East Indies with Voyages of Tasman, Pelsaert and de Chaumont.

James III is King of England, deals with The Monmouth Rebellion.

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1685: West African slaving depot Cape Coast Castle is taken over for the English by Capt. Henry Nurse and renamed Fort Royal.

1685: By 1685: Secretary to the Lord of Trade is William Blathwayt (sic) and Barbados men fearful of more duties on sugar. An an agent in London for the Gov. of Barbados is one Thomas Robson. (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 57-58), and some interested merchants in London seem to be Edward Littleton, John Gardner, Sir John Bowden, and these included some of the largest merchants involved to Barbados. Soon, James Kendall to be appointed Gov. of Barbados, the first planter-gov since Modyford.

1684: The RAC lists include: Sub-governor Sir Dudley North, Col. John Pery (sic) also secretary, Thomas Heatley, Abraham Hill, Sir William Hussey, William Jarrett, Sir Peter Paravicini (sic) or Paravisin, Stephen Pitts, Peter Joye (sic), Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Sir Peter Colleton, Nicholls or Niccols (sic), Sir Benjamin Newland, William Stevens, Lord George Berkeley, John Morice, John Bull, William earl of Craven, Thomas Vernon; Benjamin Skutt also an Africa Company's agent in Barbados. Davies; Sir Samuel Dashwood, Sir William Langhorne, Sir Jeffrey Jeffreys, also separate trader p372. Davies; Richard Craddock, Roger Bradyll (sic), George Boun (sic). (Davies, RAC).

1684: The Duke of York, first governor of the Royal African Company, buys £3000 worth of East India Stock in 1684. He also succeeds Prince Rupert as governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 61).

1685: Africa Co. Gov. James II (Duke of York) = Governor of Royal Africa Co. 1672-1688. Davies; Sub-governor / Deputy-Governor / Court of Assistants to the Royal Africa Co. George Boun (sic), Richard Craddock, Sir Jeffrey Jeffreys, Sir William Langhorne, Thomas Heatley, Abraham Hill, Sir William Hussey, William Jarrett, Sir Peter Paravicini (sic) or Paravisin, Stephen Pitts, Sir Dudley North, Peter Joye (sic), Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Sir Peter Colleton, John Morgan, Sir Henry Tulse, Lord George Berkeley, John Morice, Sir Gabriel Roberts, John Short, Sir Jeremy Sambrooke, [See also Samuel Sambrooke. Davies]; William Ivatt (sic), Francis Hopegood,

1685: One of the greatest merchants of his day is James Houblon (sic) From R. Davis, Rise English ship industry, p.130).

1685: Edward Randolph appointed as surveyor of pines and timbers in Maine for naval use, salary of £50, and by 1691 Randolph is surveyor-general, deals with Jahleel (sic) Brenton or Ichabod Plaisted - Plaisted an influential provincial judge timber getting for John Taylor naval mast contractor). by 1700, Gov. of New York Richard Coote Lord Bellomont complaining neither Randolph nor Plaisted done any work of use. John Bridger also worked the colonists, trying to supervise matters and Bridger did much for the "broad arrow policy" to 1696. Albion, Forests and Sea Power, pp. 242-243, p. 260).

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1685: England: Smugglers had begun to feel persecuted. By 1685 the illegal running of goods was already considerable. The forbidding of wool export meant that cloth workers had wool growers at their mercy. In 1717, wool smuggling is made punishable by transportation.

Before 1686: Major William Barnes acts as agent for Antigua, acting in concert with Christopher Jeaffreson. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 68).

1685 - Royal Africa Company associates include: George Boun (sic), Richard Craddock, Sir Jeffrey Jeffreys, Sir William Langhorne, Thomas Heatley, Abraham Hill, Sir William Hussey, William Jarrett, Sir Peter Paravicini (sic) or Paravisin, Stephen Pitts, Sir Dudley North, Peter Joye (sic), Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Sir Peter Colleton, John Morgan, Sir Henry Tulse, Lord George Berkeley, John Morice, Sir Gabriel Roberts, John Short, Sir Jeremy Sambrooke, [See also Samuel Sambrooke. Davies]; William Ivatt (sic), Francis Hopegood. (Davies, RAC).

1685: England has instituted in the New England area its "broad arrow policy", which meant that authorities blazed trees suitable for naval stores, preserving it from other use. (Albion, Forests and Sea Power, pp. 242-243, p. 260).

1685: The secretary to the Lords of Trade was William Blathwayt. Barbados men remained fearful of more duties on sugar. An agent in London for the governor of Barbados was one Thomas Robson. (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 57-58). Some interested merchants in London were Edward Littleton, John Gardner, Sir John Bowden, and these included some of the largest merchants involved to Barbados. Soon, James Kendall would be appointed Gov. of Barbados, the first planter-governor since Modyford.

1686++: (From Lynch on Bourbon Spain): From 1686, European merchants are re-exporting from Spain (Seville/Cadiz), assisted by Spain's own merchants, the French did well out of this.

1686: The English East India Company sends an expedition to take Chittagong and make war on the Mogul emperor. Britain finally took St. Helena, which the crown granted to the Company.

1686 - A French force captures all but one of the Hudson's Bay Company forts. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 341).

1687: Sir William Turner had begun making loans 1672 to 1693. In 1687 he was owed £3700 by Sir Arthur Harris, £3500 by the Earl of Berkeley, £1000 by Lady Williams. Other loans made several thousand pounds, mostly all at six per cent. Turner invested little in ships, no more than 1/30th of his capital. (Davies, RAC, pp. 50-52, citing City of London Guildhall Library, MS 5105).

June 1688: (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 54, p.133, p. 180), Louis of France warned James of his danger, as William corresponding in plain terms with his backers in England such as Arthur Herbert, (Danby was principal minister until 1695), another Russell sailor, Henry Sidney was Lord Romney and backed William, Lumley, the rich Whig Shrewsbury was Charles Talbot, Devonshire, Halifax not for William, the Tory Nottingham not for William. William Russell, Lord Russell.

1687: Newton produces his Principia, a masterwork on mathematics, explaining how gravity works.

1687: Turks defeated by the Russians.

1687: English settlers arrive at Sutanati.

1688: William III brings England its Glorious Revolution.

1688: Ralph Knight acting as an agent for Jamaica. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 127).

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1688: One of Britain's notable exports is ... people, people turned into commodities - units of labour value.. In 1654-1685, it has been estimated, 10,000 indentured servants sailed from Bristol alone to North America and the Caribbean; about half went to Virginia. and E. Williams (p. 137) says that in 1688 it was estimated that Jamaica alone needed about 10,000 slaves annually.

1689: England: Parliament declares that king Charles II has abdicated.

Mid-July 1689: Both William & Mary wish Russell to take command of naval fleet, and their judgement was correct, but Russell reluctant, he was friends with Lord Shrewsbury, the ex-minister, and W&M wanted Haddick, but Russell hated Haddick, Russell refused to take part in two recent naval defeats, he wanted two partners, one Lord Shrewsbury the ex-minister and one an unnamed seaman. Queen did not object to Shrewsbury, but she and William III insisted on Haddick, but Russell hated Haddick, and the lords of admiralty thought fit to oppose the queen on these issues, Sir Thomas Lee a leading admiralty man also hated Haddick, and Russell hated Lee as much as he hated Haddick, so finally the lords admiralty refused to sign a commission for the purpose, and so Carmarthen saw the Queen, he in a rage, and Stricklands feel it odd that Shrewsbury should be wanted by king, as he was not bred to naval profession, and English fleet degraded by "harpies of corruption", civilians concerned in finding stores, ammunition, provision and pay, all pilferings, none of James II;'s naval men wanted to proceed to fight, Mary upset at insolence of Sir Thomas Lee. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p.282-293ff.

1689: The Royal African Company monopoly from 1689 is broken by private traders, who by 1712 gave the Company a 10 per cent commission to help fund the operation of the forts. (Orlando Patterson, pp. 127ff).

1690s - 1750: Peter Du Cane says he is a merchant with most income from land and fund holding, a typical C18th passive investor in shipping, his grand father had made a fortune in financial operations with Wm III's wars, and by 1750, Peter Du Cane was a director of EICo with large investments in EICo stock, he dabbled unsuccessfully in marine insurance in 1740-41. (See E. Ward, The London Spy, Dagmar 3, 1698, edited by R. Straus. 1924. (From R. Davis, Rise English Shipping Industry, p.106.)

After 1688-89: William III's friend Schomberg is made Master of Ordnance, Clark, Later Stuarts, p.180.)

During the 1680s: London has up to 2000 overseas merchants. Several hundred traded independently to America, to Virginia, or New York. By 1690 the leading American merchants formed a core group of nine men, led by Richard Perry, the older Micajah Perry and their partner, Thomas Lane. Chesapeake Merchants gathered about Tower Hill, Pennsylvania around Gracechurch Street, newer Carolina merchants about north and west London. Information on colonial conditions became a tool of politics. (Olson, Making the Empire Work, pp. 27-28, pp. 52-57. Olson cites Perry, p. 209, Notes 19, 25, and p. 220, Note 37; p. 221, Note 41).

1689: 14 November: A merchants' petition to the House of Commons "proved" 100 merchant ships worth 600,000 l were lost for want of convoys, or, by corruption of naval captains. Capt Churchill's conduct was such that he was expelled from the house four days later. (Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. 7, p. 300, Note 2).

1689: Mid-July: Both William and Mary wished Russell to take command of the navy. Their judgement was correct but Russell reluctant. A dispute arose over the appointment of Haddick. The English fleet was degraded by "harpies of corruption", civilians concerned in finding stores, ammunition, provision and pay; much pilfering. (Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. 7, pp. 282-293ff).

1690: Whaling history: Whaler Ichabod Paddock from Cape Cod moves to Nantucket Island to teach on the techniques of mainland whaling - especially on harpooning .
K. Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United States: The Role of America's Seas and Waterways.. University of South Carolina Press, 1988., p. 231.

1690s++: Follows an impression of the family history of London Lord Mayor nd? Sir Francis Child.
Descendants of Clothier Robert Child of Wilts, ... sp: Miss Notknown
2. Goldsmith-Banker, Whig, Sir Francis Child (b.1642;d.4 Oct 1713) sp: Elizabeth Wheeler, cousin (b.1652;m.2 Oct 1671;d.1719)
3. MP, Banker, Samuel Child (b.1684;d.1740) sp: Agatha Edward
4. London banker, Robert Child (b.1739;d.1782) sp: Sarah Jodrell 5. Sarah Anne Child wife1, heiress (b.28 Aug 1764;d.9 Nov 1793) sp: John Fane Earl10 Westmoreland, Privy Seal (b.1 Jan 1759;d.15 Dec 1841) 6. John Fane Earl11 Westmoreland (b.2 Feb 1784;d.16 Oct 1859) sp: Priscilla Anne Wellesley-Pole (m.26 Jun 1811) 7. Ernest Fitzroy Neville Fane Lord Burghersh (b.7 Jan 1824;d.22 Jan 1851) sp: Augusta Selina Locke (b.6 Jun 1833;m.17 Oct 1849;d.4 Nov 1906) 7. Francis William Fane Earl12 Westmoreland (b.19 Nov 1825;d.3 Aug 1891) sp: Adelaide Ida Curzon-Howe (b.12 Jul 1835;m.16 Jul 1857;d.23 Mar 1903) 6. Child's banker, heiress, Sarah Sophia Fane sp: George Villiers Earl5 Jersey (b.19 Aug 1773;d.3 Oct 1859) 7. George Augustus Frederick Child-Villiers Earl6 Jersey (b.4 Apr 1808;d.24 Oct 1859) sp: Julia Peel (m.2 Jul 1841) 6. Lady Maria Fane (b.11 May 1787;d.19 Mar 1834) sp: John William Ponsonby Brn5 Bessborough, Earl4 Bessborough (b.1781;m.16 Nov 1805;d.1847) 7. John George Brabazon Ponsonby Earl5 Bessborough (b.14 Oct 1809;d.28 Jan 1880) sp: Frances Charlotte Lambton wife1 (b.16 Oct 1812;m.8 Sep 1835;d.28 Jan 1880) sp: Caroline Amelia Gordon-Lennox wife2 (b.18 Jun 1819;m.4 Oct 1849;d.30 Apr 1890) 7. Frederick George Brabazon Ponsonby Earl6 Bessbororough (b.11 Sep 1815;d.11 Mar 1895) 7. Walter William Ponsonby Earl7 Bessborough, Baron8 Bessborough (b.13 Aug 1821;d.24 Feb 1906) sp: Louisa Susan Cornwallis Eliot (b.17 Dec 1825;m.15 Jan 1850;d.15 Jan 1911) 7. Augusta Lavinia Priscilla Ponsonby sp: William Thomas Petty-Fitzmauric Earl Kerry (m.18 Mar 1834) sp: Hon. Charles Alexander Gore 7. Maria Jane Elizabeth Ponsonby sp: Charles Frederick Cooper Ponsonby Brn2 de Mauley 6. Augusta Fane (b.17 May 1786) sp: John Parker Baron2 Boringdon, Earl1 Morley (b.3 May 1772;m.20 Jun 1804;d.14 Mar 1840) sp: Rt Hon. Sir Arthur Paget (b.1771;d.1840) 7. Laura Caroline Paget wife1, cousin (b.24 Oct 1816;d.9 Dec 1871) sp: Henry Spencer Chichester Baron2 T? (b.14 Jun 1821;m.3 Aug 1842;d.10 Jun 1906) sp: MP Francis Reynolds-Moreton, RN, Baron3 Ducie (b.28 Mar 1739;m.10 Oct 1774;d.19 Aug 1808) 4. MP, London banker, Francis Child (b.1735;d.1763/1764) 3. Banker, Alderman, Sir Robert Child (d.1721) 3. London Lord Mayor, Banker, Sir Francis Child (b.1684;d.20 Apr 1740) sp: Miss Notknown 4. Banker Francis Child 3. Banker Stephen Child (d.1762) 3. Elizabeth Child sp: Alderman Tyringham Backwell
4. Banker Barnaby Bank Backwell at Child's Bank 4. Banker William Backwell at Child's Bank

1680s-1690s: A noted slaving merchant is John Cary of Bristol, England.

1690: Ireland, Battle of the Boyne.

1690: King's absence and 3 June, 1690, Queen Mary brought to council, nine privy councillors, appointed by William to assist her, president Danby now Marquess of Carmarthen, who bribed the English senate, with Lord Pembroke, Lord Devonshire, Lord Nottingham, Lord Godolphin, Lord Marlborough, Lord Monmouth, Admiral Russell and Sir John Lowther. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 238, Admiral Russell rough and savage temper, perpetual grasping after money and profit, often taking affront, p. 244.)

After mid-1690: Battle of the Boyne, 1690, (p. 266 William had a troop of 30,000 regular troops, good artillery, Boyne won by a furious charge of cavalry) and Mary had her father's standards carried in triumphant processions and later hung in St. James chapel, her father's old friends were outraged, and later Charles Montague, earl of Halifax, wrote a poem panegyric of William's exploits at this battle, without naming the antagonist, James II. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p.26-2670ff.

1690+: John Prebble, The Darien Disaster. London, Secker and Warburg, 1988.

1690-1692: Job Charnock establishes Calcutta. East India Co. receives English royal charter giving it monopoly of Eastern Trade for 15 years.

1692: India: Calcutta and the death of Job Charnock of English East India Company:

On August 4 2001 (sent to the India Mailing List)
. -----Original Message----- From: achintyarup Ray: aray0@rediffmail.com
To: INDIA-L@rootsweb.com - INDIA-L@rootsweb.com
Date: Saturday, 4 August 2001 3:46 AM
Subject: [India-L] Calcutta History
Dear Listers, Following is a legal story the Hindustan Times is carrying today on the history of Calcutta. Thanks, Achintyarup Ray, Calcutta

PIL filed against Charnok myth
HT Correspondent
Kolkata, August 3

CALCUTTA HIGH Court today admitted a public interest litigation challenging that Job Charnok, agent of East India Company, founded Kolkata about 300 years ago.
A two-judge Bench, headed by Chief Justice Asoke Kumar Mathur, asked the petitioner to serve notice on the State Government and held that the matter would be heard again after a month.
Presently, August 24 is being celebrated as the city's birthday as Charnok is believed to have anchored his boat in the Hooghly off Sutanity on that day in 1690.
The petitioners -- Sabarna Roy Chowdhury Parivar Parishad (SRPP) and some city-based historians -- claimed that Kolkata existed long before Job Charnok arrived in India and the name "Kalkata" may be traced even in books like Manasa Vijay and Ain-e-Akbari, written in 1494 and 1596 respectively.
SRPP, founded by members of Sabarna Roy Chowdhury family, which originally owned Kolkata, said Charnok landed at Sutanuti, a marshy fishing village on the bank of the Hooghly on August 24, 1964 and lived there till he died on January 10, 1692.
"Charnok only concentrated towards some trade and was among hundreds other Europeans and Indians who traded at Sutanuti", said counsel Smarajit Roy Chowdhury, who appeared for SRPP before the Division Bench this afternoon. Roy Chowdhury, who is also a descendant of Sabarna Roy Chowdhury, said it was long after Charnok's death that East India Company obtained the "Right to Rent" of the three villages - Kalkata, Sutanuti and Gobindapur -- on which the city of Kolkata now stands. Charnok died six years before the deal was signed.
The deed, singed at Bangladesh's Barisha, was, however, found to be illegal as two minor of Sabarna family signed it out of a plan, formulated to resist the British, Roy Chowdhury pointed out.
SRPP also said no individual can be regarded as the founder of the city and it was Lakshmikanta, predecessor of Sabarna Roy Chopwdhury, who got the ownership right of eight villages, including the three ones, from the Emperor Akbar as a token of appreciation of his services.
Roy Chowdhury said a copy of the "Right to Rent" also proved that Charnok was founder of the city, August 24 was its birthday.
The case was filed "to set right a wrong fact and reconstruct the history of Kolkata, which is almost unknown to the world".
///////////Ends this item //////////

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Mid-1690, Mary Stuart is worried as expecting a battle between her father and her husband William III forces in Ireland, and wants William's directions for command of the fleet, Lord Monmouth claimed the command, Torrington (a Jacobite) had been deprived of it, Russell refused to take it, so Sir Richard Haddick and Sir John Ashby were proposed by Council, but Haddick wished perhaps Duke of Grafton (soon killed as it happened at siege of Cork), as he'd been brave at Beachy Head, Mary rather thought of Shovel. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p.261ff.

Mid-1690: William III protests that Mary has transferred Admiral Russell from his post in Council to superintend a disabled fleet, an ill success at sea, Lord Torrington to come to trial (for what?, but acquitted and it seems when William III came with ships, Torrington in command of them, ships out of condition, Torrington withdrew in disgrace to obscurity, and when he died, the title of Torrington was given to Admiral Byng, a commander whom James II had drawn from obscurity) Russell seemingly loyal to Torrington. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 256-258.

Mid-1690: English Navy in a poor state, and suspicion of (Herbert) Lord Torrington, Mary desired to interfere in his business as an Admiral, Navy felt want of a royal admiral, corruption in provisioning of the navy, Torrington insecure re his ability to defend England, Lord Monmouth wanting command of a ship of the line, as he had been ok in navy under James II, James had wanted naval men to have had a naval life, Mary did not follow this policy, Monmouth wanted most of the navy, but Mary doubted his fidelity, there are secret letters passed about now to Mary written in lemon juice (Mary later aware this "lemon juice" is disinformation provided by Monmouth's man Major Wildman). (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p.252-255-261.)

1690: (Kel lock's article, pp. 131-132), Lane, Son and Fraser was founded by John Lloyd (1656-1730), of 11 Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street. Portugal trade, then with the New East India Company. Friends with one Peter Godfrey. Thomas Lane came into firm in 1735. Lane accumulated debts in America during the Seven Years War. fix After 1690, the firm Lane, Son and Fraser was founded by John Lloyd (1656-1730), of 11 Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street. The firm was in the Portugal trade, then with the New East India Company. Peter Godfrey was a friend of the firm. Thomas Lane came into the firm in 1735 and he accumulated debts in America during the Seven Years War. (Katharine A. Kellock, 'London Merchants and the pre-1776 American Debts', Guildhall Studies in London History, Vol. 1, No 3, October 1974., pp. 131-132).

1690: Some Lords Privy Seal were Sir John Knatchbull, Sir William Pulteney, in 1691 Thomas earl of Pembroke, in 1713 William earl of Dartmouth.

1690: Note that penal settlements for convicts were West Indies and North American colonies. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 244.)
See Carl and Robert Bridenbaugh, No Peace Beyond The Line: The English in the Caribbean, 1624-1690. New York, 1972.

1690: On Virginia Merchants: Olson notes that by 1690, leading [London] American merchants had formed a core group of nine men led by Richard Perry, the older Micajah Perry and their partner, Thomas Lane; and probably a younger Micajah Perry. By Walpole's time, one of the Perrys had become "dean of the American lobbyists". Perry the younger finally bankrupted, partly as he spent so much time engaged in mercantile politics. [See Robert G. Albion, Forests and Sea Power: The Timber Problems of the Royal Navy, 1652-1862. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1926., p. 445; Also, Alison G. Olson, Making the Empire Work, pp. 27-28, pp. 52-53, p. 103]. During the 1680s, London had some 2000 overseas merchants, and several hundred were independently trading to America. Chesapeake Merchants gathered about Tower Hill, Pennsylvania around Gracechurch Street, newer Carolina merchants about north and west London.

1691: Edward Littleton and William Bridges were chosen to transact business for Barbados, John Gardner who had unofficially represented Barbados being overlooked. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 58).

1691: August. Queen Mary ordered the arrest of Bishop of Ely and Lord Dartmouth. She remained an enemy of William Penn, trying to stop to his philanthropy to Pennsylvania. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. 7, p. 327, pp. 335-336). Admiral lord Dartmouth was committed to the Tower by Queen Mary, later to die of "grief and regret". Mary meanwhile desired to add the French colony of Canada to her domain, and she invaded Quebec, unsuccessfully. France held Canada for another 50 years [See the later careers of Wolf and James Cook].

1691: As Mary and William fought in Flanders they found a great slaughter of English troops, no victory. Corn was at famine prices, the gentry and merchants sank under the weight of taxation never heard of before in Britain. The fleet had returned in disgrace, seamen had "horrible provisions and worthless ammunition" as provided by a corrupt ministry. Lady Russell sought the auditorship of Wales for her son, Mr. Vaughan. Jacobites remained active. (Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. 7, pp. 336-337).

1691: Sir Josiah Child (of the East India Company) and seven others owned more than 25 per cent of Royal Africa Company stock, and voted their own way, accordingly. (Davies, RAC, p. 156). It is probable that regular financial linkages were maintained from now between East India Company investors and those with interests in profiting from slaving.

1692: As the outrage over the Campbell massacre at Glencoe persisted, there the Scottish Darien Company which helped lead Scotland to the Union of 1707. In 1654, the Highlanders failed in a rebellion against Cromwell.

Sept 1692: Mary's errors in law, Strickland says her intellect was brilliant, but she had a cannon-fodder view of the populous, temptations of new gin shops, the thief-takers after blood money, executions under the reward-conviction system as supported by Parliament became 40 victims per month in London alone, "murderous traffic of false witnesses", her grievous system lasted till 1816. and here, amazingly, Stricklands, two women writers of 1852 and earlier, here cite Apt Maconochie of Norfolk Island off Australia, his work on "penal science", and regard his views as result of Mary's and her cabinet's bad edict of Sept 13, 1692 Maconochie said, "To set a price on the head of a criminal, or otherwise on a great scale to reward the information of accomplices, is the strongest proof of a weak or unwise government ..... (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 391-392.)

13 September, 1692: Queen Mary issued an edict by proclamation offering 40/- per head for the apprehension and conviction of any burglar or highwaymen. This became known as "blood money", and it got a terrific number of convictions and executions, while the evil(s) Mary wished to end, only increased in number. Many abuses here continued to the reign of Ego I, Strickland says, and all this gave rise to the thief takers, their informers, the gaolers, evils not subdued till the police of 1829 and later, Stricklands writing later after 1829, "a long retrospect of human calamity [was] thus opened up in one terrific error in legislation" from Mary, "a prison discipline formed after the nearest idea of the dread place of future perdition", not likely to cure her people of crime. She did not refer anything here to Parliament. "Much of the crime and sorrow of the present day," writes Strickland, "and, indeed, the greatest national misfortune that ever befell this country, originated from the example given by William III and his Dutch courtiers as imbibers of ardent spirits. In fact, the laws of England, from an early period, sternly prohibited the conversion of malt into alcohol, excepting a small portion for medicinal purposes." .. p. 390 "The consummation of all injury to the people, was the encouragement that King William III was pleased to give to the newly-born manufactories of spirituous liquors." [an earlier English prejudice against gin]. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p.388-389-390.)

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Sept 1692: Mary's errors in law, Strickland says her intellect was brilliant. a cannon fodder view of the populous, temptations of new gin shops, the thief-takers after blood money, executions under the reward-conviction system as supported by parliament became 40 victims per month in London alone, "murderous traffic of false witnesses", her grievous system lasted till 1816. and here, amazingly, Stricklands, two women writers of 1852 and earlier, here cite Apt Maconochie of Norfolk Island off Australia, his work on "penal science", and regard his views as result of Mary's and her cabinet's bad edict of Sept 13, 1692 Maconochie said, "To set a price on the head of a criminal, or otherwise on a great scale to reward the information of accomplices, is the strongest proof of a weak or unwise government ....."Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 391-392.)

1692: Lord Orford as Admiral Russell became victor at Cape La Hogue.

1692: A severe earthquake on Jamaica destroyed the notorious Port Royal. The French continually raked the coast, but the buccaneers were gone.

1692: William Beeston (forced to resign the agency of Jamaica in 1698 with the Free Trade Act) was appointed governor of Jamaica and also agent for the Royal Africa Company. Edwin Stede (much accused after his retirement) was Barbados RAC agent for 20 years. On Barbados he was also provost marshal, deputy secretary, collector of customs, councillor and secretary, and 1685-1690 he was Lt.-Governor, acting governor. A similar situation existed with Hender Molesworth on Jamaica. (Davies, RAC, variously).

1692: September 13: Queen Mary issued an edict by proclamation offering 40/- per head for the apprehension and conviction of any burglar or highwayman. This became known as "blood money", and obtained many convictions and executions, while the evil(s) Mary wished to end only increased in number. (Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. 7, pp. 388-390). The reckless bands of well organised smugglers in Kent, Sussex and Hampshire were also products of bad laws, "a vicious system" with its origin with William III's time with its need for revenue. (Teignmouth and Harper, The Smugglers, Vol. 1. 1973. [Orig. 1923]. pp. 11-12).

1692: 1692-1724, (Penson, Colonial Agents, p.226), remarks re West India agents bribing officials for expedition with business!

1692: Charles Montague later Halifax, lord of treasury in 1692, first lord 1697-1699, in 1714 he again became first lord. Charles Montague later Halifax, born 1661, lord of treasury in 1692, first lord 1697-1699, in 1714 he again became first lord. 1692 - Clark, Later Stuarts, p.172, the corsairs of Tripoli had declared war on France and assisted British forces, Orford appeared on the Tripoli coast, a famous French privateer at this time is Jean Bart. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p.133.)

1692, Lord Orford as admiral Russell victor at Cape La Hogue in 1692.

1692: Severe earthquake on Jamaica.

1693: (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp.180ff. as yet, not enough absentee planters from Jamaica to organiser affairs, till a coffee house situation arose near the Royal exchange. Jamaica Coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, from 1674. Jamaica agents, 1693-1704, Bartholomew Gracedieu. Gilbert Heathcote, see Penson.

1693: From 1660, Danby had used cash bribes in the City in various East India Company matters. The Duke of Leeds who had received 5500 guineas was impeached. (Clark, The Later Stuarts, p. 85).

1693: William Paterson the later promoter of the Scottish Darien Company (who may have known Dampier in the "silent period" of Paterson's life in the West Indies) appeared before a committee of the House of Commons on behalf of a mercantile group with a scheme for credit on Parliamentary Security. The Bank of England was formed in 1694 on that basis. Paterson resigned from the new bank in 1695. For a time, Paterson was entangled with the City of London orphan's fund. Then he promoted the Darien project with Sir Robert Christie, the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, and Lord Belhaven. Vast enterprises were envisaged. (John Prebble, The Darien Disaster. London, Secker and Warburg, 1988., pp. 1-3ff, pp. 11-13).

1693: As yet, there were too few absentee planters from Jamaica able to organise affairs, till a coffee house situation arose near the Royal exchange, Jamaica Coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, from 1674. An Act was passed with the agents for Jamaica being three Jamaica merchants, Gilbert Heathcote (1693-1704), Sir Bartholomew Gracedieu MP (1693-1704) and John Tutt. Sir Gilbert Heathcote (1651-1733), a founder of the East India Company in 1693, Lord Mayor 1710-1711. (Melville, South Sea Bubble, p. 123). (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 180ff, p. 75).

1693: Re Jamaica (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 180ff,) an act passed with agents for Jamaica being three Jamaica merchants, Gilbert Heathcote, [Sir] Bartholomew Gracedieu MP and John Tutt. 1693: As yet, not enough absentee planters from Jamaica to organiser affairs, till a coffee house situation arose near the Royal exchange. Jamaica Coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, from 1674.

1693: Ships husband Joseph Herne on June 24, 1693 writes to ships master Mr. Edward Mathews of ship Expedition, re merchant names Heneage Fetherstone, (sic), of Alicante, Mr. John Bancks (sic) of Exon - (R. Davis, Rise English ship industry, p. 169.) Jamaica agents, 1693-1704, Bartholomew Gracedieu. Gilbert Heathcote, see Penson. Melville, South Sea Bubble, p123, Sir Gilbert Heathcote 1651-1733, a founder of the EICo in 1693, Lord Mayor 1710-1711.

1693, Sir John Somers is keeper of the Great Seal.

1693 - Allegations arose of heavy bribery of ministers by the East India Company regarding its new charter. The Duke of Leeds (Danby) was later impeached. There were few Whigs in the Company at the time. By 1695, dissension broke out, which assisted the Scottish Company. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 85, p. 352).

Mid-1690: William III protests that Mary has transferred Admiral Russell from his post in Council to superintend a disabled fleet, an ill success at sea, Lord Torrington to come to trial (for what?, but acquitted and it seems when William III came with ships, Torrington in command of them, ships out of condition, Torrington withdrew in disgrace to obscurity, and when he died, the title of Torrington was given to Admiral Byng, a commander whom James II had drawn from obscurity) Russell seemingly loyal to Torrington. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 256-258.)

1693: Re Jamaica (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 75), an act passed with agents for Jamaica being three Jamaica merchants, Gilbert Heathcote, [Sir] Bartholomew Gracedieu MP and John Tutt. 1693: (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp.180ff. as yet, not enough absentee planters from Jamaica to organiser affairs, till a coffee house situation arose near the Royal exchange. Jamaica Coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, from 1674.

1693: Jamaica agents, 1693-1704, Bartholomew Gracedieu. Gilbert Heathcote, see Penson.

1693: (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 352), heavy bribery of ministers by EICo re new charter for EICo, Duke of Leeds/Danby later impeached, few Whigs in Co. at time. and by 1695, dissension broke out, which assisted the Scottish co.

1690s: India: Bengal. English East India Company official Job Charnock founds the city of Calcutta (aided by local people), on a swamp by the Hooghly river in Bengal, North-Eastern India.

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1694: Founding of The Bank of England, as suggested by the well-travelled Scotsman William Paterson.

1694: Wm III been detained by the French Fleet, but he arrived at Margate on Nov 12, he opened Parliament next day, voted thanks for Mary's firm administration, Parliament proceeded to impeach her favourite prime minister, then Duke of Leeds, for the "infamous corruption of his government", and the late speaker of the house, Sir John Trevor, for himself receiving bribes, and distributing them in HOC, and some of the Queen's staff were here compromised, and as journals of House of Lords indicates, Sir Thomas Cooke, chairman EICo had sent a bribe from EICo to lord president of Mary's cabinet in council, Carmarthen, by Sir Basil Firebrass. and among people suspected here were Lord Nottingham, the queen's lord chamberlain, one Colonel Fitzpatrick [he soon died] re 1000 guineas a pal of Nottingham, Lady Derby mistress of the robes, Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 431ff.

Mid-1690: English navy in a poor state, and suspicion of (Herbert) Lord Torrington, Mary desired to interfere in his business as an Admiral, Navy felt want of a royal admiral, corruption in provisioning of the navy, Torrington insecure re his ability to defend England, Lord Monmouth wanting command of a ship of the line, as he had been ok in navy under James II, James had wanted naval men to have had a naval life, Mary did not follow this policy, Monmouth wanted most of the navy, but Mary doubted his fidelity, there are secret letters passed about now to Mary written in lemon juice (Mary later aware this "lemon juice" is disinformation provided by Monmouth's man Major Wildman). (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p.252-255-261.

1694: 28 Dec: Queen Mary dies aged 33 having kindly removed her servants from dangerous proximity, having had "dreary hallucinations", with a popish nurse one hallucination, mention of Jacobite DR Radcliffe p 442, did she have scruples re her father James II? day she died, Wm III swooned twice, moves spied on by a ghoulish roaming Jacobite Catholic priest, Lord Jersey a secret Catholic, priest sent messages to James II, a French observer said she was more bitter against her father than her husband Wm III, did Wm III have affair with Elizabeth Villiers? Strickland by way of an amazing demolition job views her as p. 453 as "an unnatural daughter and a cruel sister", she had Greenwich and Virginian endowments. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, pp. 443-453-454.

1694: John Stevens published a translation of Faria y Sousa's book Asia Portuguese, probably for the first time introducing British to story of how Portuguese discovered the world, dedicated to Catherine of Braganza, the Portuguese princess now Queen of England.

Danby used some cash bribes, Danby or duke of Leeds in 1694 so he was the one bribed by the EICo? (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 85.)

1694: Sir William Trumbull is one of the commissioners of Treasury,

In 1694: is published in England Robinson's book, An Account of Several Late Voyages & Discoveries to the South and the North, in which Tasman's voyage of 1642 was translated. this book helped revive British and Dutch interest in the still-unknown Terra Australis. (Australian Encyclopedia).

1694: (Fox Bourne, English Merchants, pp. 253ff), in 1688 at Amsterdam, then Hamburg, brief interlude with New River Company to get fresh water into London. became a talker on collection and arrangement of public loans, so helped found the Bank of England in 1691, one objection to it being that the monarch could no longer debase the coinage, the Bank was established from 27 July, 1694, then Paterson left the Bank and was entangled for a time with the City of London orphan's fund, then to the Darien project with Sir Robert Christie the Lord Provost of Edinburgh and Lord Belhaven, vast enterprises envisaged, by 1697 had £400,000 subscribed, needed to build ships at Edinburgh and Leith, offices of Co. at Milne Square, Edinburgh, Paterson went off to get stores at Hamburg and Amsterdam, left money with a London merchant James Smith, but £8000 went missing, Paterson took the blame on himself, got references from Edinburgh merchant Robert Blackwood and William Dunlop the Principal of Glasgow College, who was an: eminent scholar, accomplished antiquary, shrewd merchant, brave soldier, able politician, zealous divine and an amiable man". Paterson deposed as Darien manager by July 1698 and then the Darien madness entered in, Paterson tried to correct bad management but failed. [sense the Dariens did not know what they were doing] Expedition one landed on a watery morass, in six months, about 2/3rds of the expedition dead, some 1200 people, Paterson so devastated he sank into a kind of second childhood, or early dotage, but recovered.

1694: The French invaded and almost took Jamaica. London sent 1000 troops at a cost of £50,000. From 1682 to 1702 the governor was Sir William Beeston. It was during Beeston's period that the first Campbells arrived on Jamaica. The military governor of Jamaica 1701-1711 was Thomas Handasyd, an army brigadier, followed by Lord Archibald Hamilton a naval man. Jamaica was now again a garrison colony and soldiers quickly died.

1694: William III had been detained by the French Fleet, but he opened Parliament on 13 November. Parliament proceeded to impeach Mary's prime minister, then Duke of Leeds, for the "infamous corruption of his government"; and the late speaker of the house, Sir John Trevor, for himself receiving bribes, and distributing them in the House of Commons. Some of the Queen's staff were here compromised. Sir Thomas Cooke, chairman of the East India Company had sent a Company bribe to the lord president of Mary's cabinet in council, Carmarthen, by Sir Basil Firebrass. Among people suspected were Lord Nottingham, the queen's lord chamberlain, one Colonel Fitzpatrick [he soon died]. (Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. 7, pp. 431ff).

1694: John Stevens published a translation of Faria y Sousa's book Asia Portuguese, introducing the English to the story of how the Portuguese had discovered the world. Also in 1694 was published in England Robinson's book, An Account of Several Late Voyages & Discoveries to the South and the North, in which Tasman's voyage of 1642 was translated. This book helped revive British and Dutch interest in the still-unknown Terra Australis. (McIntyre, Secret Discovery of Australia, p. 5).

1694: Danby used some cash bribes, Danby or duke of Leeds in 1694 so he was the one bribed by the EICo. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 85.)

1694: Sir William Trumbull was one of the commissioners of Treasury.

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1694: Wm III been detained by the French Fleet, but he arrived at Margate on Nov 12, he opened Parliament next day, voted thanks for Mary's firm administration, Parliament proceeded to impeach her favourite prime minister, then Duke of Leeds, for the "infamous corruption of his government", and the late speaker of the house, Sir John Trevor, for himself receiving bribes, and distributing them in HOC, and some of the Queen's staff were here compromised, and as journals of House of Lords indicates, Sir Thomas Cooke, chairman EICo had sent a bribe from EICo to lord president of Mary's cabinet in council, Carmarthen, by Sir Basil Firebrass. and among people suspected here were Lord Nottingham, the queen's lord chamberlain, one Colonel Fitzpatrick [he soon died] re 1000 guineas a pal of Nottingham, Lady Derby mistress of the robes, (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 431ff.

John /Houblon/ Lord Mayor of London Lord Mayor of London 1695 Sir John Houblon elected in 1695.
(Item, per Peter Western)

Follows an impression of the family history of London Lord Mayor of 1695 Sir John Houblon, son of a Flemish merchant dealing to Spain:
2. Gov Bank of England, Lord Mayor London Sir John Houblon (c.1695;d.1724) sp: Miss Notknown
3. Arabella Houblon sp: Richard Mytton
4. Richard Mytton (d.27 Feb 1730) sp: Letitia Owen 5. Anna Maria Mytton (d.Aug 1750) sp: Sir Charles Charlton Leighton, Bart3 (d.5 May 1780) 4. John Mytton sp: Mary Davenport 2. Whig MP, Dir New EICo, James Houblon (c.1695) (with other brothers).

1695: In Queen Anne's reign, fear of the "mob" had arisen. In April 1695 there were riots in London about Tooley, who ran a debtor's prison in Holborn and was suspected of kidnapping recruits for the army.

1695: Established, the Bank of Scotland, with capital of only £100,000 sterling. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 265, p. 284.) Clark says that in 1695, the Darien Co. "infringed" rights of the Bank of Scotland,

1695: French forces sent onto Jamaica but were ejected by settlers. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 330), the British got sent an expedition to Jamaica with two regiments of foot, but it was rendered useful by disease and mismanagement, there was later an outburst of piracy, so home got licensed Apt William Kidd in privateer the Adventure Galley in which some of the leading Whigs were shareholders. Kidd later hanged. Kidd's backers include Bellomont the gov. of NY organises backers for Kidd, including Sir John Somers, Shrewsbury, Russell the First Lord of Admiralty and Earl Orford, and Lord Romney the head of Ordnance. and one Mr. Harrison. All these men are also backers of William III.

1695: William III anticipated action of 1695 Scots Parliament by appointing a regular commission of inquiry. As a result of its excellent report, Dalrymple had to resign and spend the rest of his time in private life. Earl of Breadalbane charged with high treason but never brought to trial. Clark writes, "The general execration of the deed helped to build up the British sense of justice and humanity"...."never again were the worst methods of frontier warfare combined with the worst methods of secret police". That Parliament then went on to the Darien Scheme. (Clark, Later Stuarts, pp. 280-281.

1695: Fear of "the mob" had arisen. In April were riots in London about Tooley, who ran a debtor's prison in Holborn and was suspected of kidnapping recruits for the army.

1695: 26 June: Partly due to William Paterson's efforts, in the Scots Parliament was passed an Act for a Company (The Darien Company) trading to Africa and Indies, wanting a monopoly to trade with Asia and Africa for all time and with America for 31 years. (Some London merchants were Scots, says Clark, The Later Stuarts, p. 282) London directors discussed fitting a Scots ship for the East India Company trade, but the Company fought this in London. The Darien Company retreated to Edinburgh. Paterson had obtained an old manuscript copy of Lionel Wafer's journal of travels on Isthmus of Darien. Wafer was a friend of Dampier and both gave advice to the Darien Company.
1690+: See Clennel Wilkinson, William Dampier. London, John Lane, 1929.
Other books on Dampier: W. H. Bonner, Captain William Dampier, buccaneer-author. Standford, 1934. P. K. Kemp and C. Lloyd, The Brethren of the Coast. London, 1960. J. C. Shipman, William Dampier, sea-man scientist. Kansas, 1962.

1695: To prevent frauds in ships, John Bland wrote "Trade Revived" and proposed registration of ownership of shipping. (See Godolphin about 1702) (Davis, Rise of the English Shipping Industry, p. 108).

1695 Circa: The governors of Christ's Hospital included Arthur Baron, Adrian Beyer, Col. James Boddington, Sir William Coles, Sir James Collett, Peter Godfrey, Samuel Jackson, Robert Knight, Thomas Lockington and Micajah Perry; significant merchant names all. (See A. L. Bier and Roger Finlay, London, 1500-1700: The Making of the Metropolis. 1986., p. 276).

1695: An act of 1695 constituted the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies, capital at £600,000 sterling, half subscribed in London, half in Scotland. William Paterson the main mover here, he had been in the West Indies, made money in the City of London, had been in at the foundation of the Bank of England, a director for the first year, then sold out. At the time,the stock of the EICo was dropping, it was natural it should protect its monopoly. the shit hit the fan for many reasons, the English subscribers dropped the whole thing. Scotland tried much to help the company, promised £400,00 and raised £200,000 from over 1300 persons. and what Paterson had chosen for a site for operations was the Isthmus of Darien, south of the Mosquito Coast, hence, the Darien Scheme. (Clark, p. 263), "The period which begins with the Restoration has been called the most pitiful in the history of Scotland."

G. Pratt on Darien p89, echo here for Phillip, Darien men reckoned they had found a harbour "capable of containing 10,000 sail of Shipps".

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1695: August: The Russell and Howland families become more interested in the East India Company. In August 1695 a spate of corrupt activities was discovered, such as forgery of banknotes. William Kidd was born in Scotland between 1645 and 1660, and by about 1695, he owned land in New York, including sections of Wall Street, prime property. He had a connection with Mr. Livingston. Kidd as a New Yorker had backed the installation of William III. In 1695, Kidd began seeking a naval position, at a time when Americans are also engaging in Madagascar piracy which was linked to "Red Sea men" which were also harrassing English East India Company ships, annoying London merchants. Various strands of concerns were brought together by Livingston who was promoting Kidd. England needed to suppress American piracy and encountered William III's idea to licence pirates. Bellomont the governor of New York organised backers for Kidd, including Sir John Somers, Shrewsbury, Russell the First Lord of Admiralty, Earl Orford, and Lord Romney the head of Ordnance, plus Mr. Harrison. All these were backers of William III.

1695: A noted Bristol shipowner was John Cary. (BM Add MSS 5540-120, cited in Davis, Rise of the English Shipping Industry, p. 109).

1695: December: After London left the Darien Company alone from December 1695, between February and August 1696 Scotland in an extraordinary effort pledged £400,000, though less than half was ever paid; 1300 persons and more signed their names, many risking all they had. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 282).

1695: French forces sent onto Jamaica were ejected by the occupants. Troops sent by Britain were rendered by disease and mismanagement. There was later an outburst of piracy, so the home government licensed Apt William Kidd of New York as a privateer in Adventure Galley. Some of the leading Whigs were shareholders in the venture. Kidd was later hanged. Bellomont the governor of New York helped organise Kidd's backers, including Sir John Somers, Shrewsbury, Russell the First Lord of Admiralty and Earl Orford, and Lord Romney the head of Ordnance,plus one Mr. Harrison, all of whom were backers of William III. (See Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 330).

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Aug 1695: Russells and Howland families become more interested in EICo. In Aug 1695 a spate of corrupt activities discovered, e.g., forgery of banknotes, William Kidd born in Scotland between 1645 and 1660, about 1695, Kidd owns land in New York, including sections of Wall Street, prime property. He has a connection with Mr. Livingston. Wm Kidd as a New Yorker had backed installation of William III. Livingston wishing to blacken the name of Gov. Fletcher of New York. In 1695, Kidd seeking a naval position, at a time when Americans are also engaging in Madagascar piracy which is linked to "Red Sea men" which are also harassing British EICo ships, so London becomes upset. Various strands of concerns brought together by Livingston who is promoting Kidd. England needs to suppress American piracy and encounters William III's idea to licence pirates.

December 1695 and later: (Clark, Later Stuarts, p.282), when London left the Darien Co. alone from Dec 1695 as the EICo in trouble, between Feb and Aug 1696 Scotland in an extraordinary effort pledged £400,000 though less than half was ever paid. 1300 persons and more signed their names, many risking all they had,

See S. G. Checkland, Scottish Banking, 1695-1973. 1975.

1695: Circa: Carteret - Admiralty family from before 1700, proprietary owners in colonies Carolina, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. During the 1690s, noted mercantile names included Carteret - an Admiralty family from before 1700, proprietary owners in colonies Carolina, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Sir John Lambert, dealt throughout Europe (Westerfield, Middlemen, p. 361). Sir Thomas Gresham was "renowned and philanthropic" but his business methods were none too honourable; there were allegations of fraud, usury and high finance (Westerfield, Middlemen, p. 399). Sir John Eyles, Sir Gregory Page, Sir Nathaniel Mead, the Earl of Tilney (Westerfield, Middlemen, p. 403). "Merchant money was democratizing" the peerage and gentility. (D. W. Jones, 'London Merchants and the Crisis of the 1690s', in Clark and Slack, (Eds.), Crisis and Order).

1695 Circa: Sir John Lambert, nd? dealt all around Europe, see Westerfield, Middlemen, p361. Sir Thomas Gresham, renowned and philanthropic, business methods none too honourable, fraud, usury and high finance. (Westerfield, Middlemen, p. 399.) splendid homes of Sir John Eyles, Sir Gregory Page, Sir Nathaniel Mead, the Earl of Tilney, Westerfield, Middlemen, p403, by way of merchant money democratizing the peerage and gentility.
D. W. Jones, London Merchants and the Crisis of the 1690s, in Clark and Slack, (Eds), Crisis and Order.

1696-1699: English fortify Calcutta.

1697: Bernard and Lotte Bailyn, Massachusetts Shipping, 1697-1714. Cambridge, Mass, 1959.*

1697: Pollexfen in England wrote on colonies: the usefulness of the labour of Blacks and [white] vagrants. (Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. New York, 1985., p. 236).

From 1697: Years after Modyford had died, most English convicts transportable were directed to the West Indies. On July 2, 1697 the Lords Justices ordered 50 convict women sent to the Leeward Islands. [Wilfrid Oldham, Britain's Convicts to the Colonies. Sydney, Library of Australian History, 1990., p. 5] There is record of an answer from Micajah Perry of London. [See John M. Hemphill, Virginia and the English Commercial System, 1689-1733, p. 259, citing on Perry, Elizabeth Donnan, "Eighteenth-Century English Merchants: Micajah Perry", Journal of Economic and Business History. Four Vols. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1928-1932. iv 1932., pp. 70-98.] These women must have been conspicuous, as they are also mentioned in Peter Linebaugh, The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century. London, Penguin Press, 1991., p. 59. See Coldham, Emigrants in Chains, p. 55. Oldham, Britain's Convicts to the Colonies, p. 5 on 50 women convicts.

1696: (G. Pratt on Darien p. 1), in 1696, London agents for Co. of Scotland to Africa/Indies, appoints Messrs James Smith and James Campbell of London their agents, merchants and directors of the Co., plus Alexander Stevenson in Edinburgh and James Gibson in Glasgow. Darien connections p. 4 with Honble John Erskin, son of Lord Cardross the Gov. of Stirling Castle. John Haldan, Baron of Gleneagles, Messrs William Paterson and James Smyth, directors, with Lt. Col. Erskin. deal also with Scots at Hamburg, Rhode Island, Sec of Darien Co. is Trumbull, at Hamburg is a link man Sir Paul Ricaut. p. 48, Whitehall June 30, 1697, meeting of HM Comms for Trade and Plantations, re Scotch EICo, ordered that Mr. [William] Dampier who hath lately printed a book of his voyages - Dampier and Mr. Wafer - re queries on Isthmus of Darien. Dampier and Wafer attended again on July 2, 1697, answering re Spaniards at Panama east to River of Chipelo and an island named Chipelo, follows a description of Darien. part III of book is Wafer's description of Darien, surgeon Lionel Wafer, by now, sec of Darien Co. is Roderick Mackenzie.
G. Pratt on Darien p. 50, Surgeon Lionel Wafer in London met Dampier, met in a London coffee house with agents of the Darien directors and th

1696: (G. Pratt on Darien p. 1, in 1696, London agents for Co. of Scotland to Africa/Indies, appoints Messrs James Smith and James Campbell of London their agents, merchants and directors of the Co., plus Alexander Stevenson in Edinburgh and James Gibson in Glasgow. Darien connections p. 4 with Honble John Erskin, son of Lord Cardross the Gov. of Stirling Castle. John Haldan, Baron of Gleneagles, Messrs William Paterson and James Smyth, directors, with Lt. Col. Erskin. deal also with Scots at Hamburg, Rhode Island; Sec of Darien Co. is Trumbull, at Hamburg is a link man Sir Paul Ricaut. p. 48, Whitehall June 30, 1697, meeting of HM Comms for Trade and Plantations, re Scotch EICo, ordered that Mr. [William] Dampier who hath lately printed a book of his voyages - Dampier and Mr. Wafer - re queries on Isthmus of Darien. Dampier and Wafer attended again on July 2, 1697, answering re Spaniards at Panama east to River of Chipelo and an island named Chipelo, follows a description of Darien. part III of book is Wafer's description of Darien, surgeon Lionel Wafer, by now, sec of Darien Co. is Roderick Mackenzie.

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1696: (Olson, Making the Empire work, p.10), in 1696, William III set up the Board of Trade, and its members obtained information from interest groups, as William's government tightened control on the colonies.

1697AD: Hungary: A final victory of the war, the battle of Zenta in 1697, is followed by the Treaty of Karlovitz [Karlóca] in 1699, which, with the exception of a small region, frees all Hungary from Turkish occupation.

1697: William Dampier in Aust ADB. (1652-1715). published his books in 1697 and 1699, and the admiralty consulted him. so he sailed with the rank of captain in Jan 1699 in HMS Roebuck, and on Aug 6 1699 he anchored at the inlet he named Shark Bay. his 1702 court martial declared him unfit to command a HM ship, in 1708 and 1711 he sailed with Apt Woodes Rogers. In 1707 Dampier published his "unfortunate account" of the 1703 fiasco, Apt Dampier's Vindication of his Voyage to the South Seas in the Ship St. George. (London, 1707). entry concludes, "The discovery and settlement of eastern Australia may be viewed as the indirect but none the less real conclusion of Dampier's work. See also, L. R. Marchant, 'William Dampier', JRWAHS, 6. 1963.

1697: The (Scottish) Darien Company by 1697 had £400,000 subscribed, and needed to build ships at Edinburgh and Leith. Its offices were at Milne Square, Edinburgh, Paterson went off to get stores at Hamburg and Amsterdam, left money with a London merchant James Smith, but £8000 went missing, Paterson took the blame on himself, got references from Edinburgh merchant Robert Blackwood and William Dunlop the Principal of Glasgow College, who was an: eminent scholar, accomplished antiquary, shrewd merchant, brave soldier, able politician, zealous divine and an amiable man". Paterson deposed as Darien manager by July 1698 and then the Darien madness entered in, Paterson tried to correct bad management but failed. [sense the Dariens did not know what they were doing] Expedition one landed on a watery morass, in six months, about 2/3rds of the expedition dead, some 1200 people, Paterson so devastated he sank into a kind of second childhood, or early dotage, but recovered.

From 1697, the main stream of convicts transportable is directed to the West Indies.

1697-1699: Montague at Royal Society had introduced Dampier to Lord Orford, Lord Admiralty, and about now, Dampier had realised possibilities of Australian continent, saw Aust as "a country likely to contain gold". So he put a proposal to Admiralty that a king's ship explore the coast of New Holland, mentions other places to be visited with good advantage, he had been commissioned by as early as spring 1698. deciding to round Cape Horn, go to Australian east coast, to go north to New Guinea, which meant he would have got in before Cook. but delayed till September. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 155-156.

1697: Charles Montague later Halifax, lord of treasury in 1692, first lord 1697-1699, in 1714 he again became first lord. 1697, Pelham one of commissioners of Treasury.

1697, 2 July, Lords Justices orders 50 convict women sent to the Leeward Islands. - (Oldham, British Convicts, p. 5.)

1698: The French develop a new company to trade in the Pacific, Compagnie de la Mer de Sud, sending four vessels by Cape Horn which return in 1701. Callao becomes a favoured port for French trade ships.

1698: 18 Chas. II, c3. Act 22 Chas II c.5 and Act 22 23 Chas II c.7. continued all this, transportation being to America of Northumberland (?). London Guildhall records show that the contract system with merchants transporting convicts is in existence by now.

1698: The scientific movement. 1698 Peter the Great of Russia is at Deptford studying shipbuilding and navigation.

1698: Ideas in English Whig circles to form the New or English East India Company, granted its charter in September 1698.

1697-1699: Montague at The Royal Society had introduced Dampier to Lord Orford, Lord of the Admiralty, and about now, Dampier had realised possibilities of the Australian continent, seeing it as "a country likely to contain gold". He proposed to Admiralty that a king's ship explore the coast of New Holland, and mentioned other places to be visited with good advantage. He was commissioned by as early as spring 1698, deciding to round Cape Horn then visit the Australian east coast, to go north to New Guinea. (Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 148-149, 155-156).

1698: July: Dampier was ordered to appear before the Council of Trade and Plantations to be "examined as to the design of the Scotch East India Company to make a settlement on the Isthmus of Darien" under William Paterson. Lionel Wafer was another witness. Dampier's friends now included Sir Robert Southwell, diplomatist and president of The Royal Society, 1690-1695. and Sir Hans Sloane, patron of men of science and founder of the British Museum, secretary of The Royal Society in 1693 and succeeding Isaac Newton as president in 1727. (Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 150ff).

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1698-1707: The profits of the slave trade. A ship the King Solomon of the Royal Africa Company in 1720 carried a cargo of slaves worth £4252. Some 296 Negroes are sold in St. Kitts for £9228, a profit of 117 per cent. The profit on the company's exports 1698-1707 was about 66 per cent. (Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro: The History of The Caribbean, 1492-1969. London, Andre Deutsch, 1970., p. 147).

1698: September: There were ideas in Whig circles to form the New or English East India Company, granted its charter in September 1698. The New EICo would trade normally with India in competition to the already-established EICo, but other schemes such as the Darien scheme of the Company of Scotland and the piratical adventures of Capt. Kidd to Madagascar had provided inspiration. The Darien Company cast of characters included William Dampier as a minor advisor, his two patrons, Lord Charles Montague later Earl of Halifax, Chancellor of Exchqr, and Earl of Orford, First Lord of the Admiralty. Both of these were involved in Darien scheme and Capt. Kidd's piracy to Madagascar, So any later findings by Dampier may have gone to Orford and the New East India Company?

1698: The 10th Earl of Argyll a large subscriber to the Darien Co., subscribed £1500, his brother James put in £700, and 22 gentlemen and merchants of allegiance to Argyll put in a total of £9400. There is mention of more Campbells in Darien Co. pp. 102-103, one Major Thomas Drummond was with the Campbells at the massacre at Glencoe, under command of Rbt Campbell of Glenlyon. so, "the Glencoe gang" - which disappeared into the destructive vortex of Darien events.
List of the principal Darien characters including: Capt. Rbt Alliston was a buccaneer and friend of William Paterson, Argyll 10th Earl, Col. Alexander Campbell of Fonab, Capt. Thos. Drummond of the massacre at Glencoe and brother of ship Capt. Robert Drummond, commander of the ship Caledonia of Darien Expedition 1, later commander of Speedy Return on an African voyage, and sailed to Africa with Robert Drummond. Capt. Thomas Green of Worcester later charged with piracy against the Darien Co's ship Speedy Return, Tweeddales also in Darien Co., Sir Robert Christie the Lord Provost of Edinburgh and Lord Belhaven, needed to build ships at Edinburgh and Leith, offices of Co. at Milne Square, Edinburgh, Paterson went off to get stores at Hamburg and Amsterdam, left money with a London merchant James Smith, but £8000 went missing, Paterson took the blame on himself, got references from Edinburgh merchant Robert Blackwood and William Dunlop the Principal of Glasgow College, Paterson deposed as Darien manager by July 1698 and then the Darien madness entered in, Paterson tried to correct bad management but failed. Col. Alexander Campbell of Fonabb (sic), one of Darien link men re proposed Colony of Caledonia on American continent. In 1696, London agents for Co. of Scotland to Africa/Indies, appoints Messrs James Smith and James Campbell of London their agents, merchants and directors of the Co., plus Alexander Stevenson in Edinburgh and James Gibson in Glasgow. connections with Honble John Erskin, son of Lord Cardross the Gov. of Stirling Castle. John Haldan, Baron of Gleneagles, Messrs William Paterson and James Smyth, directors, with Lt. Col. Erskin. deal also with Scots at Hamburg, Rhode Island, Sec of Darien Co. is Trumbull, at Hamburg is a link man Sir Paul Ricaut. A Darien Co. link man re America is Martin Gregory in Amsterdam. Glasgow merchants Walter and Patrick Buchanan, Dr. John Munro, re medicine, voyage of Capt. Richard Long at time Sir William Beeston is Lt. Gov. of Jamaica, in Dec 1698.
(See Spate Vol. 2, p. 169 re Scots and Darien), first Darien Co. directors were 20, 10 in London and seven in London were Scots, great need for privacy re views of the EICo charter, and secrecy, Darien to be a colony with 2500 people .. ships Caledonia and Unicorn reached New York with Thos. Drummond, losing 275 men on the way, Feb. 1700, Caledonia on Darien saved by the arrival of Campbell of Fonabb, and straight to a fight with the Spanish, p. 178, Rising Sun and her consort later to Charleston in South Carolina, to be overwhelmed by a hurricane, and of 1300 people here, 950 died. nb: Pratt-preserved ledgers mentions perhaps only one merchant of Glasgow named Campbell. ledger mentions goods in 1699 from John Sumervil, [1718 - born Colin Somerville son of John Somerville, a Commissioner of General Assembly. James Somerville was an uncle of young Colin. William Somerville was a provost of Beufrew.] and John Munro, Glasgow merchants Thomas Calder, many merchants mentioned, tho few Campbells. Costs from William Arbuckle merchant of Glasgow, outlaid for Speedy Return Capt. John Baillie, for Caledonia. Arbuckle laid out £1415/14/9 and one-third pennies, on or by 23 Dec., 1699.
Pratt on Darien, Carolina colony originally to be a refuge for Scots. Later sailed the Darien ships Speedwell owned by Robert Blackwood Jnr a merchant of Edinburgh, Capt. Jn Campbell and supercargo Rbt Innes, to Macao. Speedwell left Batavia in July 1701 for Macao. Speedwell later wrecked. Other Darien Co. ships Speedy Return and Caledonian, sent out. In Scotland, a plan to send next ship, the Annandale, which was seized by English revenue men. Another Co. ship Content, Capt. Stewart to India. p. xx, claims re the "legalised murder" of Capt Green of ship Worcester, tensions surrounding helped leading to the Union of 1707, this writer claims. Mr. Alexander Hamilton is link man for Darien Co. interests in American colonies.
Capt Thos. Drummond of the massacre at Glencoe and brother of ship's Capt. Thos. Drummond, commander of Caledonia of Expedition 1, later commander of Speedy Return on an African voyage, and sailed to Africa with Thos. Drummond. Capt Thomas Green of Worcester later charged with piracy against the Darien Co's ship Speedy Return.
Capt. Robert Drummond was later commander of Speedy Return on an African voyage, and sailed to Africa with Thos. Drummond. Capt. Thomas Green of Worcester is later charged with piracy against the Darien Co's ship Speedy Return, and the murder of the Drummonds, hanged on Leith Sands). The first Darien expedition comprised five ships, 1200 men and provisions, in ships including Caledonia, Unicorn, and St. Andrew. About July to November 1698 was made the remark: "This harbour ... capable of containing a thousand sail" (a maritime cliché repeated by Arthur Phillip in 1788 regarding Sydney Harbour). Don Juan Pimienta, Governor of Cartegena, attacked and won the second Darien colony by land and sea. Tweeddales also invested in the Darien Company, Tweeddales also in Darien Co., Sir Robert Christie the Lord Provost of Edinburgh and Lord Belhaven, needed to build ships at Edinburgh and Leith, offices of Co. at Milne Square, Edinburgh, Paterson went off to get stores at Hamburg and Amsterdam, left money with a London merchant James Smith, but £8000 went missing, Paterson took the blame on himself, got references from Edinburgh merchant Robert Blackwood and William Dunlop the Principal of Glasgow College, Paterson deposed as Darien manager by July 1698 and then the Darien madness entered in, Paterson tried to correct bad management but failed. Col. Alexander Campbell of Fonabb (sic), one of Darien link men re proposed Colony of Caledonia on American continent. in 1696, London agents for Co. of Scotland to Africa/Indies, appoints Messrs James Smith and James Campbell of London their agents, merchants and directors of the Co., plus Alexander Stevenson in Edinburgh and James Gibson in Glasgow. connections with Honble John Erskin, son of Lord Cardross the Gov. of Stirling Castle. John Haldan, Baron of Gleneagles, Messrs William Paterson and James Smyth, directors, with Lt. Col. Erskin. deal also with Scots at Hamburg, Rhode Island, Sec of Darien Co. is Trumbull, at Hamburg is a link man Sir Paul Ricaut. a link man re America is Martin Gregory in Amsterdam. fix G. Pratt on Darien p221, Darien Co. trying for Surat and a link man re America is Martin Gregory in Amsterdam. fix Glasgow merchants Walter and Patrick Buchanan, Dr. John Munro, re medicine, voyage of Apt Richard Long at time Sir William Beeston is Lt. Gov. of Jamaica, in Dec. 1698. See Spate Vol. 2, p 169 re Scots and Darien, first Darien Co. directors were 20, 10 in London and seven in London were Scots, great need for privacy re views of the EICo charter, and secrecy, Darien to be a colony with 2500 people .. ships Caledonia and Unicorn reached New York with Thos. Drummond, losing 275 men on the way, Feb 1700, Caledonia on Darien saved by the arrival of Campbell of Fonabb, and straight to a fight with the Spanish,
p. 178 Rising Sun and her consort later to Charleston in South Carolina, to be overwhelmed by a hurricane, and of 1300 people here, 950 died.

1698: 25 March: Dampier is given a silly ship, "Jolly Prize", as Lord Orford pleased with this idea of exploration, but by July 1698 Dampier felt vessel unfit, so Roebuck got up, 12 guns, crew of 50 men and boys, provisioned for 20 months.

July 1698: Dampier continually called to London to advise government, council of trade and plantations wanted to know if he had heard of any proposals or bribes offered to Lionel Wafer by the Scotch East India Co.? Dampier July 1698 replied he had not, adding, Wafer unlikely to be able to offer any great service to Scotch East India Co. [Citing, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and the West Indies]. Clennell Wilkinson, Dampier, p.156.)

July 1698, Dampier ordered (why ordered?) to appear before Council of Trade and Plantations to be "examined as to the design of the Scotch East India Company to make a settlement on the Isthmus of Darien" under William Paterson. Lionel Wafer another witness. note re fantasies of gold mines as worked by slave labour. but Wilkinson feels Dampier and Wafer can have given Council much encouragement to proceed. Dampier's friends now include Sir Robert Southwell diplomatist and president of Royal Society, 1690-1695. and Sir Hans Sloane, patron of men of science and founder of British Museum, sec of Royal Society in 1693 and succeeded Isaac Newton as president RS in 1727. (Clennell Wilkinson, Dampier, pp.150ff.)
Dampier told Orford he was disappointed at smallness of Roebuck crew, among whom were Jacob Hughes master, Lt. George Fisher a gentleman and an enthusiastic Whig later an enemy of Dampier, Philip Paine gunner, mates were R. Chadwick and John Knight. Doctor was Scot William Borthwick and captains clerk James Brand. (Clennell Wilkinson, Dampier, pp.157-158, p. 247 and Dampier as scientist referred to problems of the variations of the compass.

1698 Circa: (G. Pratt on Darien, p. 107), a Mr. Alexander Hamilton is link man for Darien Co. interests in American colonies. [note, throughout, is constant note in documents, the Darien men did not know what they were doing]. Second Darien expedition, ledger kept at Glasgow by Peter Murdoch re ship's outfitting.
G. Pratt on Darien p. 55, Apt James Gibson in Darien Co. ship, Rising Sun, Mr. Cragg interested in making salt. connections include Mr. Paterson, Mrs. Woodrop and Mr. Rbt Blackwood, a Darien Co. ship also named Dolphin.

1698: (G. Pratt on Darien p. 172), Glasgow merchants Walter and Patrick Buchanan, G. Pratt on Darien, p. 166), one John Campbell of Woodsyde, mention of Dinwidie.
G. Pratt on Darien p. 97), voyage of Apt Richard Long at time Sir William Beeston is Lt. Gov. of Jamaica, in Dec 1698.
G. Pratt on Darien p. 221, Darien Co. trying for Surat and a link man re America is Martin Gregory in Amsterdam.
G. Pratt on Darien p188, Re Alexander Campbell of Fonabb (sic), one of Darien link men re proposed Colony of Caledonia on American continent.

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1698: 25 March: Dampier was provided a ship he found useless, Jolly Prize since Lord Orford was pleased with his ideas for exploration. But by July 1698 Dampier felt the vessel unfit, so Roebuck was provided, 12 guns, crew of 50 men and boys, provisioned for 20 months. Dampier told Orford he was disappointed at the smallness of Roebuck crew, among whom were Jacob Hughes master, Lt. George Fisher a gentleman and an enthusiastic Whig later an enemy of Dampier, Philip Paine gunner, mates were R. Chadwick and John Knight. Doctor was Scot William Borthwick and captains clerk James Brand. and Dampier as scientist referred to problems of the variations of the compass. (Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 157-158, p. 247).

1698: July: Dampier was continually called to London to advise government. The council of trade and plantations wanted to know if he had heard of any proposals or bribes offered to Lionel Wafer by the Scotch East India Company? Dampier in July 1698 replied he had not, adding, Wafer was unlikely to be able to offer any great service to Scotch East India Co. (Wilkinson, Dampier, p. 156, citing, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and the West Indies).

1698 Circa: (G. Pratt on Darien, p. 107), a Mr. Alexander Hamilton is link man for Darien Co. interests in American colonies. [note, throughout, is constant note in documents, the Darien men did not know what they were doing]. Second Darien expedition, ledger kept at Glasgow by Peter Murdoch re ship's outfitting.

In Amsterdam, a Darien contact is one Martin Gregory, p. 226, his brother is Jonas Gregory. (Spate, Vol. 2, The Pacific Since Magellan. ANU Press, Canberra, 1983 re Monopolists and Freebooters, Dutch, Priests and Pearlers, the Buccaneers, Dampier and Darien p 160ff, Anson sails for British, Manila, Peru and California. p 169 re Scots and Darien, first Darien Co. directors were 20, 10 in London and seven in London were Scots, great need for privacy re views of the EICo charter, and secrecy, Darien to be a colony with 2500 people,
p. 173 better stock of provisions than given to Botany Bay in 1788 . 1200 sailed for Darien on July 14, 1698, St. Andrew landed? in Jamaica, Caledonia and Unicorn reached New York with Thos. Drummond, losing 275 mane on the way, callous leadership, July 1698, Darien expedition 1 with three vessels, gave up within a year, (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 285.)

1698: 27 September: Dampier called again to council of trade and plantations re advising on fitting out a squadron against pirates to east of Cape of Good Hope. ship voyage from Madagascar to England. (Wilkinson, Dampier, p. 156-157).

G. Pratt on Darien p. 62, in 1698, a link man is Lord Ruthven. Ship Rising Sun is part of second Darien expedition. p64, a Darien director is Rt. Hon John Marquess of Tweeddale.

G. Pratt on Darien p57, (Dr. Hill Bunton's Darien Papers. p. 59), a Dr. John Munro, re medicine. p. 61. Early 1698: Principal of College of Glasgow, William Dunlop been contacted to recommend a minister to go out to Darien.
Thomas Calder, Glasgow merchant helping fit out Darien expedition.

1698 Circa: EICo Capt. Thomas Bowrey (died in 1713) came ashore with a few thousand pounds, invested in a china shop and a small group of ships he managed, about 1700 he put these in the temporarily free EICo trade, e.g. Rising Sun, Mary Galley, Macclesfield, Trumball Galley, Horsham, Prosperous, and Rochester. He also was husband for the Worcester re Capt. Green and end of the Darien Co. disasters. see R. C. Temple, The Tragedy of the Worcester. 1930.

1698: The Act 18 Chas. II, c3. Act 22 Chas II c.5 and Act 22 23 Chas II c.7. continued the custom of transportation. London Guildhall records show that the contract system with merchants was in existence by now. (Wilfrid Oldham, p. 4).

1698: The scientific movement: 1698 Peter the Great of Russia was at Deptford studying shipbuilding and navigation. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 372).

1698: 21 Nov.: Dampier wrote to Lord Orford on proposed voyage, he had drawn up his own instructions, now too late to get about Cape Horn (Bligh said the same in late 1787), so he'd have to sail via CGH. wanted a gratuity for his men, aware he is insecure in ways of dealing with superiors. His formal instructions came on Nov. 30. to go to CGH and stretch to New Holland, steer any course, wanting a discovery of value, hoping for advantages to nation. internal squabbles braked the expedition, Lt. George Fisher a regular naval officer had been a leading light re expedition had appeared re the board's deliberations. He was later Dampier's enemy. Fisher kept a note book, in 1689 Fisher had served with distinction on William III's fleet at Londonderry. (Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 158-162).

1698, 25 March: Dampier given a silly ship, Jolly Prize, as Lord Orford is pleased with this idea of exploration, but by July 1698 Dampier felt vessel unfit, so Roebuck got up, 12 guns, crew of 50 men and boys, provisioned for 20 months.

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July 1698, Dampier continually called to London to advise government, council of trade and plantations wanted to know if he had heard of any proposals or bribes offered to Lionel Wafer by the Scotch East India Co.? Dampier July 1698 replied he had not, adding, Wafer unlikely to be able to offer any great service to Scotch East India Co. [Citing, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and the West Indies]. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, p.156.)

July 1698, Dampier ordered (why ordered?) to appear before Council of Trade and Plantations to be "examined as to the design of the Scotch East India Company to make a settlement on the Isthmus of Darien" under William Paterson. Lionel Wafer another witness. note re fantasies of gold mines as worked by slave labour. but Wilkinson feels Dampier and Wafer can have given Council much encouragement to proceed. Dampier's friends now include Sir Robert Southwell diplomatist and president of Royal Society, 1690-1695. and Sir Hans Sloane, patron of men of science and founder of British Museum, sec of Royal Society in 1693 and succeeded Isaac Newton as president RS in 1727. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, pp.150ff.)

Re Argyll's trading to America, if so by when? One Argyll brother perhaps? There is an Argyll brother mentioned re Darien in The Old Scots Navy (?).

Dampier told Orford he was disappointed at smallness of Roebuck crew, among whom were Jacob Hughes master, Lt. George Fisher a gentleman and an enthusiastic Whig later an enemy of Dampier, Philip Paine gunner, mates were R. Chadwick and John Knight. Doctor was Scot William Borthwick and captains clerk James Brand. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, pp.157-158, p. 247), and Dampier as scientist referred to problems of the variations of the compass.

1698: 27 September: Dampier called again to council of trade and plantations re advising on fitting out a squadron against pirates to east of Cape of Good Hope. ship voyage from Madagascar to England. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 156-157.)

1698: There were ideas in Whig circles to form the New or English East India Company, granted its charter in September 1698.

Jan 1699: Wm sent a circular letter to Govs of English colonies ordering them to refuse all aid or countenance to the Darien colonists. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 284.)

1699: G. Pratt on Darien p. 138, VIP nb: the ledger mentions perhaps only one merchant of Glasgow named Campbell. ledger mentions goods in 1699 from John Sumervil, and John Munro, Glasgow merchants Thomas Calder, many merchants mentioned, no Campbells.
G. Pratt on Darien, p. 89, echo here for Phillip, Darien men reckoned they had found a harbour "capable of containing 10,000 sail of Shipps".
G. Pratt on Darien, p. 193, 20 Oct, 1699, costs from William Arbuckle merchant of Glasgow, outlaid for Speedy Return Capt. John Baillie, for Caledonia. no Campbell's were suppliers, Arbuckle laid out £1415/14/9 and one-third pennies, on or by Dec 23, 1699.

1699: The Tories were impeaching about 1699 the Whigs Somers, Portland, Orford and Halifax. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 186, p.195), Montague as Halifax - member of junto p., 225, 27, 381, info being that 186, in 1697 Montague succeeded Godolphin as First Lord of Treasury.

January 1699: Roebuck ready to sail with Dampier aboard. a king's ship. more Dampier books in hands of the printers. and Dampier wrote from Downs to Lord Orford, First Lord of Admiralty, unable to send Orford a copy of book(s), and this volume the second made Dampier even more famous. [Wilkinson p. 154 complains Dampier is damned with faint praise in British DNB]. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, p.152.)

1699: 14 January: Roebuck sailed from Downs, master Hughes. Met at Tenerife, English Captain Travers of the Experiment. Fisher thinks Dampier has put an assassin aboard to kill Fisher, Fisher put off boat, then for Cape Verde by Feb 11. Aug 6, Dampier sees WA then makes for Timor arriving Sept 22. Wilkinson feels Dampier felt he was making a mistake in leaving. Seeing south coast New Guinea Jan 1, 1700. [Byrnes feels he must have been testing the winds]. Dampier lost his ship off Island of Ascension Feb 22, 1701 by a leak, Dampier lost his papers. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 162-181.)

1699: "The Kidd affair" as it became known. 1699, a ship was sent out to get Kidd but it was driven back by a storm, allegations Kidd's backers wanted plunder at home and abroad, admiralty got a percentage from [licenced] pirates. King's grant (William III) for backers of Kidd, a Royal Patent. with dummy names disguising "great names" i.e. the names of Kidd's backers. 1701, Apt Kidd back in London, a furore on his activities and queries on who were his backers? HOC listens to argument and allegations. If Kidd claims, as he did, he is innocent, then he also exonerates his backers.

December 1699, Lt. Fisher off Dampier's ship long back in England and laying in wait with a prosecution. enemies been busy for some time. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, p. 182.)

(G. Pratt on Darien, p. 77, p. 271); Darien Manuscripts in Archives of the Royal Society. Dr. James Wallace sailed with Darien Fleet and gave an almost-official record to the Royal Society, if Capt. Pennycook's voyage, Royal Society printed it in 1700-1701 as part of its transactions.

Sept 1699: Third Darien expedition four ships, even beat of an enemy attack, but gave up when enemy returned with stronger force, and evacuated, not one ship returned home of the four, and Wm found the Scots like "raging madmen". (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 285.)

1699: January: Roebuck ready to sail with Dampier aboard. More books by Dampier were in the hands of printers. (Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 152-154).

1699: January: William II sent a circular letter to the governors of English colonies, ordering them to refuse all aid or countenance to the Darien colonists. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 284).

September 1699: Third Scottish Darien expedition, four ships, Scots even beat off an enemy attack, but give up when enemy returns with stronger force, and evacuate; not one ship returned home of the four, and William III found the Scots like "raging madmen".
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 285.)

1699: Presidents of Council formerly Thomas earl of Danby till 1698, in 1699 was Thomas earl of Pembroke, in 1708 John Lord Somers, in 1711 John Duke of Buckinghamshire.

About 1700: Some governors of Christ's Hospital in London included Arthur Baron, Adrian Beyer, Col. James Boddington, Sir William Coles, Sir James Collett, Peter Godfrey, Samuel Jackson, Robert Knight, Thomas Lockington and Micajah Perry. (A. L. Bier and Roger Finlay, London, 1500-1700: The Making of the Metropolis. London, Longman, 1986., p. 276.)

After 1700: More so with the advent of the Hanoverians, England produced the stereotyped image of portly John Bull. Insensitive and jingoistic, not bright at all, despising the French and the Irish, wanting "the Scotch" kept under the foot, and the fruits of an expanded empire. Often a Whig.

1700: An associate of the Thomson brothers was an emigrant to Virginia, William Claiborne. Claiborne's son, (or, grandson?) was one Colonel Leonard Claiborne, who had two daughters, one, untraced, ? and another, Catherine, who was of a marriageable age by 1700, died 1735. [I am grateful to Virginian genealogist John Dorman for information on the Claiborne family of Virginia]. Catherine married a Scot who by 1700 had left the second or third unsuccessful expedition of the Scottish Darien Company to the present area of the eastern outlet of the Panama Canal, one John Campbell. John Campbell after his disappointing Darien adventures remained in a state of high dudgeon, declaring he would not return to an England or a Scotland which had sabotaged the Darien Company.

The Asiento:

As American silver flowed to Europe, as Europe learned to cope with inflation due to the intake of Spanish silver, there arose a role for the Asiento, or, a market for silver exchange devoted to slaving business. The question of satisfying the supply of and demand for slaves was plugged irrevocably into international business and commerce of the time.

Supplies of ultra-cheap labour for colonies were guaranteed as luxuries (food spices, sugar, tobacco) become more available to the upper classes, then the middle classes. "Capitalism" was corrupted in respect of many factors; the costs of labour, the elasticity of the supply of labour, the operating costs of plantations, the sale price of the final products; all while the Mercantilist attempted to buy cheap and sell dear as a matter of course.

A commercial role for the romantic figure of Prince Rupert should not be forgotten.
(Prince Rupert Wittlesbach (17 Dec. 1619-29 Nov. 1682), FRS: there is a legend that Rupert invented a gunpowder ten times more powerful than existing supplies.

Rupert's father was Frederick Wittlesbach, his mother was Elizabeth of Bohemia. Rupert was linked romantically with Frances Bard and the actress, Margaret Hughes. Rupert became a patentee of the Royal African Company on 10 January 1663, and got involved in that Company's squabbles with the Dutch. He had planned by August 1664 to take 12 ships to the African coast to harry the Dutch. He was upset in 1665 when command of this fleet went to the Earl of Sandwich (Edward Montagu (1625-1672 and not himself.
(GEC, Peerage, Sandwich, p. 432, Mount Edgecumbe; p. 315.)

By 1668 he had a devised a scheme with Monck, the Duke of Albermarle for discovering a passage from the Great Lakes to the South Sea, In June 1668 two ships went to seek the north-west passage; one of the ships was the Eaglet ketch, loaned by Charles II. The expedition had been proposed by a Frenchman, Groseilliers, and the commander was a man from Boston, Zacariah Guillam. A charter of 2 May, 1670 was given to Rupert and others for the Hudson Bay Company. The third Dutch war broke out in March 1672, and on 15 August, 1672, Rupert was appointed vice-admiral of England. By 1673 Rupert was intimate with Shaftesbury.
[K. H. D. Haley, The First Earl of Shaftesbury. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1968., p. 229].)

Rupert became partners with Sir Thomas Cicheley and first Earl Shaftesbury, and they hoped the navy would buy guns they manufactured, but this arrangement went bad and they let their rights to one John Browne of Horsmonden, Kent. But Browne soon died and his widow and one William Dyke soon owed money to Rupert, Earl Shaftesbury and Chicheley.

By 1636 or later Rupert had a wild scheme to colonise Madagascar, of which his mother disapproved; Rupert (and/or Charles) asked the advice of the East India Company. Later, an expedition of Rupert's was commanded by one Sir William Batten. Rupert had old grudges against Lord Colepeper. By 1650 Rupert was operating as a pirate against the English and down to Cartagena, and he wanted to use Barbados as a base. His flagship this time was named Constant Reformation. He once took some prizes from the Gambia. Rupert by 1653 came under the influence of the lord-keeper, Sir Edward Herbert, and Rupert was hand in glove with Lord Jermyn and Lord Gerard (Charles Gerard, (died 1694/95) first Baron Gerard of Brandon, first Earl Macclesfield).
(GEC, Peerage, Macclesfield, pp. 328ff; Hamilton, p. 269). From 1654, Rupert spent six years in Germany. [See DNB entry and Eliot Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers including their private correspondence. Three Vols. London, Richard Bentley, MDCCCXLIX., Vol. 3, p. 489). Rupert bought the house of Sir Nicholas Crisp at Hammersmith, which had cost £25,000 to build. [On Rupert's son, Dudley, see Warburton, Vol. 3, p. 466; also Warburton, p. 461, p. 446. Earl Dartmouth, William Legge was a friend of Rupert by 1660. [Haley, Shaftesbury, p. 231] regarding Rupert and the Hudson's Bay Company, with shareholders including Cooper, also the Earl of Craven, Sir Paul Neile (sic) and his business partners, although Shaftesbury made little profits from Hudson's Bay. [GEC, Peerage, Bellomont, pp. 106ff.].

Rupert dealt with the Earl of Craven (William Craven, (1608-1697, first Earl Craven, a proprietor of Carolina, a son of William Craven, Lord Mayor of London in 1610-1611)) in some business deals.
(GEC, Peerage, Craven, pp. 500-502. Bliss, Revolution and Empire, p. 209. Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert, p. 441. Haley, Shaftesbury, pp. 158ff and variously.

Shaftesbury's commercial involvements included Dorset estates, mining, money lending, shipping, colonial proprietorship. He joined the Africa Adventurers in 1663-1666, and put dependents into East India Company employ. By 1646 he had a Barbados plantation and a ship Rose regular on the Guinea slave coast. He also dealt with the financier and Caribbean operator, Martin Noell.
(Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, Shaftesbury. Bliss, Revolution and Empire, p. 209 on proprietors of Carolina. Israel, (Ed.), The Anglo-Dutch Moment, variously. J. R. Jones, The First Whigs: The Politics of the Exclusion Crisis, 1678-1683. London, Oxford University Press, 1961. Shaftesbury's brother George married a daughter of Oldfield, a London sugar-baker. (Haley, Shaftesbury, p. 64; and on Shaftesbury as a Whig, pp. 234-235). A note is given below on the founder of the Whig Party, Henry Wriothesley, third Earl of Southampton.)

Rupert was friends with Anthony Ashley Cooper (1621-1683), first Earl Shaftesbury, often regarded, incorrectly, as "founder" of the English Whigs.
(Much could be made of Shaftesbury's lineage in terms of themes already outlined here: anti-Spanish feeling, furthering colonisation, family connections with earlier privateers, and interloping against the East India Company. In Shaftesbury's background was MP and secretary at war, Sir Anthony Ashley (1551-1622), who married Dorothy Wroughton (died 1616). She had also married MP Carew Raleigh, a privateer and brother of Sir Walter Raleigh. Shaftesbury's second wife was Frances Cecil, daughter of David Cecil (third Earl Exeter), and Elizabeth Egerton, a daughter of John Egerton, first Earl Bridgwater, by Frances Stanley (1583-1635, daughter of Ferdinando Stanley (1559-1594), fifth Earl Derby; that is, John Egerton otherwise married to Margaret Courteen. Shaftesbury's third wife, married in 1655 was Margaret Spencer, daughter of William Spencer (died 1636), second Baron Spencer of Wormleighton, and Penelope Wriothesley (1598-1667), daughter of Henry Wriothesley (1573-1624), who is more properly viewed as founder of the English Whig party. GEC, Peerage, Spencer of Wormleighton, p. 160, Shaftesbury, p. 646.)
(Henry Wriothesley: Who's Who /Shakespeare, p. 234. GEC, Peerage, Craven of Ryton, p. 507; Drogheda, p. 436; Bedford, pp. 80ff; Southampton, pp. 128ff. Hervey, Arundel, pp. 42ff. Joyce (Ed.), Amazon, p. 204, Note 1. He is known in literature as a patron of Shakespeare. He once went on an expedition to the Azores, and was variously involved with anti-Spanish sentiment, the Virginia Company, the East India Company, Bermuda, the North West Passage Company, New England, the "Sea Plan" of 1622, and he helped govern Ireland under Essex. By 1603 he had a farm of Sweet Wines. He came undone as he aided Essex's "insurrection".

Rupert in older age developed a gunpowder ten times more powerful than anything earlier known! It would be surprising if the revised market for gunpowder did not give a strong filip to the demand for saltpetre from India, carried in East India Company ships. By 1650, Rupert was vigourously pirating against English parliamentary ships, although his own fleet had no more than five ships.

1681, Berkely Castle for English EICo sails homes, reputed the richest ship ever went out on Madras Roads, cargo worth £80,000, half its tonnage being not-so-valuable saltpetre, much bullion.
(Davis, Rise of the English shipping industry, variously. Bal Krishna, Commercial Relations between India and England, 1601-1757. 1924.)

By 1651, Rupert was cruising the Guinea coast. His brother Prince Maurice was destined to be lost in a storm at sea by September 1652. Rupert was interested in Barbados and was there by summer 1652, after Ayscue had returned the island to the obedience of Parliament. Rupert did not bring home great prize money, nor political advantage from his sea war with the Dutch. Soon he came under the influence of Sir Edward Herbert, the lord keeper.
(Herbert: Attorney-General 1641-1645. GEC, Peerage, Portland, p. 587; Torrington, p. 784ff.)

Rupert was also close to Lord Jermyn, and Lord Gerard, who all wished to overthrow Hyde.
(Lord Gerard was lieutenant-general of all the forces in 1678-1679, admiral and a Royalist Whig, Charles Gerard (died 1694/95), first Baron Gerard of Brandon and first Earl Macclesfield. Hibbert, Cavaliers and Roundheads, lists, p. 300. GEC, Peerage, Macclesfield, pp. 328ff; Hamilton, p. 269.)

In search of profit, on 10 January, 1663 Rupert became one of the patentees of the Royal African Company of the day, and there followed disputes with the Dutch. By 1668 with others including the Duke of Albemarle he took up the search for the supposed North-west passage via Canada to the South Sea. (The Hudson's Bay Company was chartered on 2 May, 1670). Rupert was first lord of the admiralty between July 1673 and May 1679. By about 1670, the Hudson's Bay Company set out to exploit several million square miles of Canada, with a capital of only £10,500.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 32.)

About then, princes, ministers and the high of society invested in joint-stock companies. James the Duke of York, lord high admiral, was the first governor of the Royal African Company, he bought £3000 worth of East India Stock in 1684; and he succeeded Prince Rupert as governor of the Hudson's Bay Company.
(Sir George Clark, The Later Stuarts, 1660-1714. Oxford History of England. Vol. 10. Oxford University Press, 1965., p. 61.)

It is not surprising, with such men having such commercial interests, conflict broke out with other cross-channel commercial powers.

There has been insufficient serious study of the Asiento, and if the names of all the merchants involved in it were known, the study of slavery could easily become more specific, especially where English involvement is concerned. In 1663, the Asiento arrangements took the form of a contract to supply the agent of the Asiento with 3500 Negroes a year. This could only be done by starving the English colonies of slaves, and anyway this contract delivered few slaves. It is intriguing to inspect what Prince Rupert might have overseen when he (or anyone else of high rank) took any interest in slaving business.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 43, p. 327.)

By 1663, the English slavers had delivered 3075 slaves to Barbados, but war had fretted the supply and the Barbados colonists were enraged at higher costs and other issues related to the Asiento.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 43., p. 327.)

In 1662, the Asiento was granted to two Genoese merchants, Grillo and Lomelin, who were given permission to sub-contract to any nation friendly to Spain. Grillo and Lomelin were soon talking to the Dutch East India Company and English Royal Adventurers. English dealers would now compete with the Dutch for this Spanish trade in slaves. The English developed absurdly optimistic hopes, reflective of their ignorance, in fact. The Grillo Asiento ended in 1671 - one English participant had been Richard (Ricardo) White.

Soon the Asiento was taken up by Garcia, a Madrid businessman, the Consulado of Seville, and a sub-contractor, Don Juan Barrosso, who relied greatly on the Dutch, by about 1671.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, agents lists.)

Some Englishmen involved included Captain Joseph Bagg, agent-general at Cape Coast Castle, John Balle, agent for the Africa Company in Jamaica, Sir William Beeston, nd, governor of Jamaica, agent for Africa Company, Thomas Belchamber, nd, agent for the Africa Company at Nevis, John Booker, agent in Gambia, Colonel Spencer Boughton, nd, agent-general at Cape Coast Castle, Capt Nathaniel Bradley, nd, agent-general at Cape Coast Castle, (Bradley was an agent at Cape Coast Castle in June 1680). John Chidley (a