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>Merchants
and Bankers Listings This Merchants and Bankers Listings website is years old and is now (from 2009) undergoing a marked identity change. Its timeline material on economic history (for 1560-1930) is being moved to a website managed by Ken Cozens and Dan Byrnes, The Merchant Networks Project. This will empty many of this website's pages which have always been in series. In due course, Merchants and Bankers Listings will carry information from the Crusades on the early development of what became “capitalism” in Europe to 1560 or so. As well as a conglomeration of data on modern developments, mostly on modern/technical industry, computing, and for the future, today's climate change problems. The editor's view is that in the context of climate change, the views of Merchants and Bankers (and Economists, politicians), the keepers of matters economic, are due for a considerable shake-up. If this website can encourage the shake-up, and help inform it reliably, well and good. -Ed
"Computers are useless. They can only give answers." - Pablo Picasso
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1970: Japan; Osaka International Exposition.
1970: In September, militant Palestinians try to overthrow King Hussein with Syrian help. US and Israel mobilize to help Jordan if necessary. More than 3,000 Palestinians are killed. Palestinian guerrilla bases move to Lebanon.
1970-1976: Palestinians form "Black September" to carry out revenge assassinations and hijackings. Israelis form "Wrath of God" to assassinate Palestinian leaders. Much bloodshed follows.
1970: The Scientific American report on lunar soils "can be regarded as the most expensive report in history", at $25 million. (Opinion from John Briam)
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1970: First mass strikes in Gdansk, Poland. Lech Walesa emerges as a workers' leader. 1976: Another wave of strikes in Poland, intellectuals join workers. On 14 August, 1980, Walesa jumps the gates of Gdansk shipyards and leads 17,000 workers on strike. By 31 August 1980, creation of Solidarity, the first free trade union in a communist country. Martial law declared in December 1981. Solidarity is outlawed. In 1983, Walesa wins Nobel Peace Prize. In 1989, partially-free elections in Poland. In 1990, Walesa elected President of Poland.
1970: Shoemakers of the world, tremble: Imelda Marcos, wife of the president of the Philippines, visits Britain, and diplomats in 2000 can now reveal that in 1970, she was "as difficult, tactless and inconsiderate as it was possible to be". In Manila, her brother Kokoy Romualdez, had given the British Embassy to understand that Imelda was "completely uncontrollable". (According to world news reports of 2 January 2000)
1970: The murderous Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia abolishes money as they associate it with competitive individualism. The invasion by Vietnam later returned money to the areas affected.
27 March, 1970: South Vietnamese forces plus US attack communist base camps in Cambodia.
April 1970: US invades Cambodia as Nixon is becoming paranoid in office. The New York Times calls it "military hallucination". (Notes from Tuchman, Folly).
4 May, 1970: Kent State University, US: Four student protesters killed by national guardsmen. Student protest blazes further.
31 December, 1970: US repeals Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
1970-2001: Death of Indonesian President Sukarno. His daughter Megawati Sukarnoputri in 2001 replaces former president Abdurrahman Wahid (the first democratically-elected president of Indonesia) as Indonesian president.
Computing history: 1971, Invention of micro-processor, and Texas Instruments works on a math calculator.
1971: Nixon Shock (for Japan) - Nixon goes to China
26 May, 1971: Signing of a seabed agreement between Australia and Indonesia. (See post-1997 history of East Timor re oil resources.)
1971: After Cambodia, US invades Laos, with US air support.
1971: Sydney: Beginning of Green Ban Movement in Sydney with union-based activist Jack Mundy. Defiance of wishes of developers to use prime spots prized by Sydneysiders.
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1971: Another war between India and Pakistan over East Kashmir, now Bangladesh.
Japan: 1972-1974 - Tanaka Government.
October 1971: The birth of email, as Roy Tomlinson, the father of @, sent the first message between two computers in October 1971. Mr. Tomlinson can?t remember what he actually wrote. He then worked for a company called BBN Technologies, working on a project to link computers called ARPAnet, the precursor of the Internet. Mr. Tomlinson used @ as he wanted to send message directly to people, not to a numbered mailbox. A decade later a permanent email connection was created between USA and Australia and ARPAnet was established for a group of researchers including Professor Bob Kummerfield (Sydney University) and Piers Lauder.
1971: Invention of micro-processor, and Texas Instruments works on a math calculator.
1972: Japan: Sapporo Winter Olympic Games, Return of Okinawa, Kawabata Yasunari commits suicide. Diplomatic relations between Japan and People's of Republic of China restored.
1972: Heroin exportation from Southeast Asia's Golden
Triangle,
controlled by Shan warlord, Khun Sa, becomes a major source for raw
opium in the profitable drug trade.
From
website
based on book: Opium: A History, by Martin Booth
Simon and
Schuster, Ltd., 1996. e-mail info@opioids.com
1972: US Apollo 16 spacecraft and three astronauts make a safe landing in the Pacific after their journey to the Moon.
1972: By 1972, the Vietnam War had lasted longer than any US overseas military engagement, but soon Nixon would "bomb them as they'd never been bombed before", etc. (Notes from Tuchman, March of Folly, pp. 306ff).
1972: Completion of the manuscript of
John Biram, The Death of the World: Teknosis. London, Arlington Books. 1978. (anti-technology views, Foreword by Robert Graves)... a sustained blast at the multi-levels of the use (and mis-use) of technology in the modern world. Biram had long discussed such topics also with the noted poet, Robert Graves.
Mid
1972, D. Meadows et al, Club of Rome publishes its book of warnings on world-future, The Limits to Growth.
May 1972: Re US-USSR detente: Moscow summit: Nixon had promised to move from confrontation to negotiation with USSR. But would US recognise a world position for USSR? Nixon and Brezhnev worked out a system of joint projects and commitments so tight it would be difficult to undo, plus mutual resolution to avoid direct confrontations.
1972: 5 September: Olympic Games at Munich. Arab terrorists of Black September movement attack an Israeli dormitory and kill two members of an Olympic team. Later shoot-out at Munich airport.
December 1972: Extremely heavy bombing of North Vietnam. By end of 1972, some intellectuals in US pronounce the end of the Cold War, due to the 1972 summit. Not all were convinced.
December 1972: The Australian "Team" depart Vietnam, one month before conclusion of ceasefire agreement and departure of last US troops.
11 December, 1972: Federal Government announces withdrawal of remaining Australian troops in Vietnam. Last Australian servicemen leave on 19 December.
31 October, 1972: Vietnam War: Kissinger declares, "Peace is at hand".
12 August, 1972: Last US ground combat troops withdraw from South Vietnam. 53,500 airmen and support personnel remain.
May 1972: Re US-USSR detente: Moscow summit: Nixon had promised to move from confrontation to negotiation with USSR. But would US recognise a world position for USSR? Nixon and Brezhnev worked out a system of joint projects and commitments so tight it would be difficult to undo, plus mutual resolution to avoid direct confrontations.
By March 1972: Most US combat forces had gone from Vietnam. Then the Watergate Affair begins, which led to the downfall of President Nixon.
30 March, 1972: Vietnam: NVA forces invade south Vietnam across DMZ, offence repulsed by September.
1972: India and Pakistan sign Shimla Accord, agreeing to solve disagreements including over Kashmir.
Computing history: 1972: From 1972, Gary Kildall using a new Intel 8008 microprocessor chip, writing a programming language for it, having earlier worked on Intel's 4004 chip. Kildall and a friend, John Torode, developed a disk drive system which could store information, by 1974. Kildall and his wife began Digital Research and sold software and a CP/M operating system. Gates at this time was wanting to make CP/M an industry standard. (By late 1978, Gates was considering a merger with Kildall's Digital. The Gates/Kildall friendship untangled in 1979, when Kildall used a BASIC program to compete with Microsoft's BASIC. So Gates then became interested in Unix. Later, in 1980, Gates found IBM wanted to use CP/M, so Gates had to contact Kildall. IBM actually tried to visit Kildall, who was unavailable, with the result that Gates got the chance to provide IBM with an operating system (which became known as DOS). Just then, in 1980, Gates found that Tim Paterson at Seattle Computer Products had developed an operating system for a 16-bit Intel chip.
1972, (See Sinclair, pp. 174ff): From 1972, Gary Kildall using a new Intel 8008 microprocessor chip, writing a programming language for it, having earlier worked on Intel?s 4004 chip. Kildall and a friend, John Torode, developed a disk drive system which could store information, by 1974. Kildall and his wife began Digital Research and sold software and a CP/M operating system. Gates at this time was wanting to make CP/M an industry standard. (By late 1978, Gates was considering a merger with Kildall's Digital. The Gates/Kildall friendship untangled in 1979, when Kildall used a BASIC program to compete with Microsoft?s BASIC. So Gates then became interested in Unix.
1972: The first email message is sent by computer engineer Ray Tomlinson across the ARPANET network. This is the precursor to the Internet, the application that launches the digital information revolution. Tomlinson is also responsible for choosing the @ sign as the locator symbol in electronic addresses. Tomlinson has said about his first message: "I have no idea what the first one was. It might have been the first line from Lincoln's Gettysburg address for all I know. The only thing I know was it was all in upper case."
1973: Cut in Arab oil production and increased prices cause oil crisis in United States and Europe.
1973: Part of savage civil war in Rwanda, by the Bahutuu, more massacre of Batutsi, and earlier in 1963.
1973: Japan: Reona Esaki becomes the Nobel laureate in physics.
28 February 1973: Australia: Bill introduced in Parliament re reducing voting age from 21 to 18.
1973: Japan: Oil crisis (Oil Shock) - Japan's vulnerability (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries - more than 60% import - two-digit inflation) -this challenge results in even greater export-inspired economic growth. the 4th Middle East War
27 January 1973: Treaty in Paris re end of Vietnam War. Hanoi overcame Saigon within two years. US suffered 45,000 killed and 300,000 wounded. Cost about $20 billion annually, or, $150 billion over normal military outlay; a contorted US economy. (Notes from Barbara Tuchman, March of Folly)
29 January 1973: Official truce in Vietnam, last US personnel leave.
1973: October or Ramadan or Yom Kippur War. Egypt and Syria attempt to regain lost territories. They push Israel back in the Sinai peninsula and initially in the Golan province. A massive airlift of US arms to Israel tips the balance. Arab oil states proclaim a boycott against all countries helping Israel.
1973: Xerox Alto produces the first bit-mapped graphics, the first mouse, and the Ethernet network protocol which later dominates networking. In 1973: Work begins on the protocol later called TCP/IP, developed by a group headed by Vinton Cerf from Stanford University and Bob Kahn from DARPA. This new protocol allows diverse computer networks to interconnect and communicate with each other.
1974: Ethiopia's leader Haile Selassie, confronted by continued unrest, agrees to constitutional convention to create a new system of elected democratic government.
1974: 9 August: Effective date for resignation from US presidency of Richard Nixon following his involvement in the Watergate Scandal.
9-10 August 1974: Post-Watergate affair, Nixon is out in disgrace and President Ford takes over.
1974: Japan: Former prime minister Eisaku Sato becomes the Nobel laureate in Peace.
1974-1976: Japan: Miki Government
1974: Yassar Arafat speaks to UN. In a major shift in PLO policy, he calls for a united Palestine with a democratic secular government "where Christian, Jew, and Muslim live in justice, equality and fraternity" (including all Jews who live there). "I come to you with an olive branch and a freedom fighter's gun; do not let the olive branch fall from my hand."
1974: Beginning in 1974 of the so-called G-7, later the G-8, the "rich man's club of the world" for the world's most powerful industrial economies, US, Japan, Germany, France, Italy, Britain and Canada.
Computing history: 1974: Re Kildall, and an agreement with Gates. See p. 183 re Tim Paterson as "father of DOS", at Seattle Computers, developer of the 8086 CPU board, which Digital Research wanted to apply for 16-bit CP/M work. See also, QDOS release by Tim Paterson, (Quick and Dirty Operating System).
Computing history: 1974, The "father/designer of the first personal computer", Ed Roberts of Albuquerque, New Mexico, designed the Altair computer with an 8080 Intel chip, using a BASIC program. US computer hobbyists go wild to buy a unit. Within five years, 200 different brands of microcomputers were available.
Computing history: 1974, Bill Gates and his friend Paul Allen deal with Ed Roberts, regarding BASIC, and new Intel 8080 chip, and the Altair computer. Gates writes a BASIC program for a microcomputer (the Altair), thus the origins of Microsoft Basic.
1974, (see p. 175), re Kildall, and an agreement with Gates. See p. 183 re Tim Paterson as "father of DOS", at Seattle Computers, developer of the 8086 CPU board, which Digital Research wanted to apply for 16-bit CP/M work. See also, QDOS release by Tim Paterson, (Quick and Dirty Operating System).
1974, The "father/designer of the first personal computer", Ed Roberts of Albuquerque, New Mexico, designed the Altair computer with an 8080 Intel chip, using a BASIC program. US computer hobbyists go wild to buy a unit. Within five years, 200 different brands of microcomputers were available.
1974, Bill Gates and his friend Paul Allen deal with Ed Roberts, regarding BASIC, and new Intel 8080 chip, and the Altair computer. Gates writes a BASIC program for a microcomputer (the Altair), thus the origins of Microsoft Basic.
1974: First use of the term, Internet, by Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn in a paper on Transmission Control Protocol. In 1974: Jim Rowe at Electronics Australia develops the world's first commercial electronic computer kit.
1975: Lebanese civil war begins. By the end of the 1980s, 144,000 Lebanese have died, most in subsequent invasions.
1975: Mid-1970's: Saigon falls. The US heroin epidemic
subsides.
The search for a new source of raw opium yields Mexico's Sierra
Madre. "Mexican Mud" would temporarily replace "China
White" heroin until 1978.
From
website based on
book: Opium: A History, by Martin Booth Simon and
Schuster,
Ltd., 1996. e-mail info@opioids.com>
1975: Death aged 69 of Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis, then husband of former first-lady of the US, Jacqueline Kennedy.
5 March 1975: Vietnam: Final NVA offensive begins in central highlands of Vietnam.
21 April 1975: Vietnam: President Thieu resigns.
30 April 1975: NVA troops enter Saigon. South Vietnam in state of unconditional surrender. (Note, SEATO is dissolved on 30 June, 1977.)
30 April 1975, Military end of the Vietnam War. The government of South Vietnam surrenders unconditionally to the North, following the withdrawal of US Allies.
16 October 1975: East Timor: Forensic investigators are now searching for the remains of five Australian-based journalists - "the Balibo five" - killed during the Indonesian occupation of East Timor, 16 October 1975. Including reporter Greg Shackleton, soundman Tony Stewart; Malcom Rennie (UK), cameraman Brian Peters, (UK). Cameraman, Gary Cunningham (NZ). (Reported 18 November 2000)
11-12 November 1975: The Australian governor-general Sir John Kerr dismisses the prime minister Gough Whitlam. Great outrage is expressed in Australia, but nil violence.
Computing history: 1975, Bill Gates and Paul Allen found Microsoft. They dealt with MITS (Ed Roberts, Micro Instrumentations and Telemetry Systems) and talk BASIC programming, operating systems and software licensing, etc. MITS released a floppy disk data storage system, Gates works on a DISK BASIC. Appearance of first software piracy to Gates' annoyance. Computer enthusiasts tend to move to live/work in Silicon Valley, California.
1975: After seeing an article in Popular Electronics magazine, Bill Gates and Paul Allen develop a computer language for the Altair 8800 computer.
1975: UNIX is released to universities world-wide for free. Half-inch reel tapes are supplied as source code for the PDP-11. The University of NSW is the first site in Australia running UNIX (Level 6) for Operating Systems studies with Australia's first UNIX guru, John Lions.
1975: Bill Gates and Paul Allen found Microsoft. They dealt with MITS (Ed Roberts, Micro Instrumentations and Telemetry Systems) and talk BASIC programming, operating systems and software licensing, etc. MITS releases a floppy disk data storage system, Gates works on a DISK BASIC. Appearance of first software piracy to Gates? annoyance. Computer enthusiasts tend to move to live/work in Silicon Valley, California. 1977, see p. 111, p. 120, Commodore releases the Pet computer, and Tandy considers the Radio Shack TRS-80. Apple also rises. With their TRS-80 computer, Tandy looked to Microsoft with interest. Silicon Valley spawns the semi-conductor industry - and Apple Computers.
1975: Since 1975, increases in microprocessor speed have doubled every 24 months. (Sun Microsystems chairman Scott McNealy, quoted in The Weekend Australian, 14-15 April 2001)
1975: The first real personal computer to run Microsoft software, the Mits Altair 8800 is released, based on Intel's 8080 processor. In 1975, public release of a conventional Encryption Algorithm (Data Encryption Standard) which becomes the widely-used symmetric encryption algorithm during the 1980s and 1990s. In 1975, the State Bank of Victoria introduces on-line teller systems for savings accounts, the world's first large-scale system.
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1976: Earthquake in Guatemala kills almost 23,000 people.
1976: Japan: Lockheed Scandal: Former prime minister Tanaka Kakuei is prosecuted for taking bribes from Lockheed.
1976-1978: Japan: Fukuda Government
Computing history: 1977: Commodore releases the Pet computer, and Tandy considers the Radio Shack TRS-80. Apple also rises. With their TRS-80 computer, Tandy looked to Microsoft with interest. Silicon Valley spawns the semi-conductor industry - and Apple Computers.
Computing history: 1977: Microsoft considers moving into the Japanese market after Gates meets Japanese Kuzohiko Nishi in 1977.
1977: Largest loan in 30-year history of International Monetary Fund, almost four billion US dollars, - made to UK to bolster its currency.
1977: Menachem Begin becomes prime minister of Israel. His Likud party traditionally advocated a "Greater Israel" including the West Bank and Gaza and perhaps Jordan with unlimited settlement of Jews in Arab-populated areas under Israeli occupation. Anwar Sadat of Egypt goes to Jerusalem to open talks.
June 30, 1977: SEATO is dissolved.
1970s: Series of studies by the US Department of Energy increases concerns about future global warming. (Greenhouse Timeline)
1977: Year the first e-mail is sent.
1977: Wrong! "There is no need for any
individual to
have a computer in their home."
Ken Olsen, president of
Digital Equipment Corp., 1977.
On Alan Turing, founder of
computer science:
Website: (broken link)
http://www.wadham.ox.ac.uk/~ahodges/Turing.html
10 September, 1976: Mao Tse Tung dies in China, aged 83.
1977: (See Sinclair, pp. 122-123, Microsoft considers moving into the market after Gates meets Japanese Kuzuhiko Nishi in 1977.
1977: Year the first e-mail is sent.
1978-80: Japan: Ohira Government
1978: In the context of the Enron crash, (by February 2002, see elsewhere in these files) a news item reports: "There is a historical pattern in such things, as recognised by economist Charles P. Kindleberger in his classic 1978 book, Manias, Panics and Crashes. 'The propensity to swindle and be swindled runs parallel to the propensity to speculate during a boom', he wrote. The 1929 US crash led to formation of the US Securities and Exchange Commission."
1978: Egypt and Israel sign the Camp David Accords. Israel invades Lebanon and seizes a 'security zone" up to the Litani River. It sets up the puppet government of the Southern Lebanese Army.
1978: The US and Mexican governments find a means to eliminate
the
source of raw opium - by spraying poppy fields with Agent Orange. The
eradication plan is termed a success as the amount of "Mexican
Mud" in the U.S. drug market declines. In response to the
decrease in availability of "Mexican Mud", another source
of heroin is found in the Golden Crescent area - Iran, Afghanistan
and Pakistan, creating a dramatic upsurge in the production and trade
of illegal heroin.
From website
based on book:
Opium: A History, by Martin Booth Simon and
Schuster, Ltd.,
1996. e-mail info@opioids.com
1978: Polish Cardinal Karol Wojtyla becomes Pope John Paul II.
Computing history: 1978, (Sinclair, p. 1), Electronics companies, mostly Japanese, gather to consider standards for encoding sound digitally, with Sony and Phillips leading, resulting in the CD (Sinclair notes p. 14 that part of the effort was the need to find a way to make video disks as an alternative to video cassettes. The use of the laser beam as suggested by Phillips won the technical battle. An early computer CD disc drive was developed by Mitsumi. The Soundblaster Card later became an industry standard for multimedia computers. 1978, see p. 135, A Microsoft agent with links to NEC in Japan, decide to build a personal computer for Japanese market.
1978, (Sinclair, p. 1), Electronics companies, mostly Japanese, gather to consider standards for encoding sound digitally, with Sony and Phillips leading, resulting in the CD (Sinclair notes p. 14 that part of the effort was the need to find a way to make video disks as an alternative to video cassettes. The use of the laser beam as suggested by Phillips won the technical battle. An early computer CD disc drive was developed by Mitsumi. The Soundblaster Card later became an industry standard for multimedia computers.
1978: (see Sinclair, p. 135), A Microsoft agent with links to NEC in Japan, decide to build a personal computer for Japanese market.
1978: Australian Owen Hill teams with an electronic components company, Applied Technology, to build the Microbee computer. Based on a Zilog Z80, the Microbee sells in hundreds of thousands to export markets and Australian schools before being overtaken by "the PC avalanche" in the late 1980s.
1979: Japan: second increase oil prices by OPEC Tokyo Summit (5th Economic Summit Conference)
1979: Soviets invade Afghanistan and install their puppet (communist) leader, Babrak Kamal. US intelligence operators later try to provoke a jihad (holy war) by Afghanis against the Russians, and arm the Afghanis, who vigourously use guerrilla tactics.
1979: Soviets invade Afghanistan and install Babrak Kamal's puppet communist regime.
1979: The Shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, loses control of his country and flees, to die of cancer in Egypt, and is succeeded by Ayatollah Khomeini.
1979: Vietnam invades Cambodia.
1979: First World Climate Conference adopts climate change as major issue and calls on governments "to foresee and prevent potential man-made changes in climate" (Greenhouse Timeline)
Computing history: 1979, see p. 139, Gates meets IBM and industry talk is of new Intel 8086 chip. Re a CPU (?).
Computing history: 1979, Appearance of first VISICALC electronic spreadsheet, also WordStar word processor, beginning of "the applications market". PASCAL appears as a programming language.
Computing history: 1979, see p. 154, Appearance of a CP/M DOS.
Computing history: 1979, Appearance of TC/IP protocols. See p. 157, Gates and Allen brainstormed an idea to make a hardware card to fit to Apple computers so they could run Microsoft programs; the Softcard, origins of cross-platforming for the most popular makes of computers.
1979: (see Sinclair, p. 139), Gates meets IBM and industry talk is of new Intel 8086 chip. See p. 143 re a CPU.
1979: Appearance of first VISICALC electronic spreadsheet, also WordStar word processor, beginning of "the applications market". PASCAL appears as a programming language. (1979, see p. 154.) Appearance of a CP/M DOS.
1979, Appearance of TC/IP protocols. See p. 157, Gates and Allen brainstormed an idea to make a hardware card to fit to Apple computers so they could run Microsoft programs; the Softcard, origins of the idea of cross-platforming for the most popular makes of computers.
1979: In Australia, the use at The Australian newspaper of the first Harris system computers marking a huge transition for this and other major Australian newspapers. Journalists changed the way they wrote stories, while the work of compositors and typesetters went to the editorial floor and pre-press workers.
1979: Australia scores another technical first with the Fairlight Computer Musical Instrument which sells to music makers around the world including Peter Gabriel and Stevie Wonder. The CMI was first featured in Peter Gabriel's "Shock the Monkey".
Later, in 1980, Gates found IBM wanted to use CP/M, so Gates had to contact Kildall. IBM actually tried to visit Kildall, who was unavailable, with the result that Gates got the chance to provide IBM with an operating system (which became known as DOS). Just then, in 1980, Gates found that Tim Paterson at Seattle Computer Products had developed an operating system for a 16-bit Intel chip.
These pages will be added to and improved in quality as time permits. In time, some essays may appear on these pages - Ed
- Dan Byrnes (otherwise indicated in these pages as -Editor)
Note:
You will
find even greater detail
than is given here, for specific periods in American - English -
Australian history, with regard to merchants, traders, bankers and
financiers, as part of the website, The
Blackheath Connection... 
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